THE PERFECT ASPECT
English verbs carry two kinds of meaning: tense, which tells us when the action occurred in time (past, present or future) and aspect, which tells us how we view this time – whether it’s completed, ongoing, temporary, etc. There are two aspects in English: perfect and continuous. We use the perfect aspect to look back from one point in time to an earlier time.
Present perfect
Simple
Have + past participle
To look back from now to situations or actions in the past that have a connection to the present. It can be used:
● for complete actions that have an importance in the present
I’ve bought a new television.* (= I have the television now.)
Have you had lunch? (= You’re not hungry, are you?)
● to refer to a time period that has continued into the present and with time expressions that mean ‘up to now’, for example this month, today
I’ve always lived in small flats, so I don’t have much stuff.
Have you used the car today?
● with time expressions just, already, yet, recently, for and since
I haven’t been here long. In fact I’ve just arrived.
It’s only four. Have you already finished work for the day?
I’m waiting for her call, but she hasn’t phoned yet.
We’ve had this television for ten years / since our wedding.
● with stative verbs (have, be, know, etc.) for unfinished actions and situations that continue into the present
Have you known Leo for a long time?
Continuous
Have been + ing
To talk about situations or actions that started in the past and are still continuing. It can be used:
● for temporary situations
How long have you been waiting?
● for repeated actions
I’ve been using the clothes dryer far too much.
● with the time expressions for, since, recently, all day/week/month/year
We’ve been managing** without heating for two weeks now.
Past perfect
Simple
had + past participle
To look back from a point in the past to an earlier situation or action. It can be used:
● for single completed events or repeated actions that happened before other events
He’d enjoyed a good lifestyle before the recession hit.
She’d used her MP3 player only four or five times before it stopped working.
● after verbs of thinking and feeling
As soon as I shut the door, I realised I’d left my keys inside.
● with stative verbs (have, be, know, etc.) to talk about unfinished actions and situations that continued into the point in the past from which the speaker is looking back
The wifi had been down for three days.
With two events that happen one after the other using expressions such as after, as soon as or whenwe can usually use the past simple, as the sentence doesn’t involve looking back to an earlier time.
After we (had) settled in, we went to call on the neighbours.
Continuous
had been + ing
To look back to a situation or action that was in progress before a given time in the past.
How long had you been living in London before you could afford to buy your own house?
We don’t usually use stative verbs (have, be, know, etc.) in the past continuous.
I*’d had** a car for years (Not I’d been having a car for years.)
**Future perfect
Simple
will have + past participle
To look back from a point in the future to a completed action. It is used:
● with a time expression such as by, in, at or before to indicate when the action is going to be completed
I*’ll have** finished using your laptop in about an hour.*
● to make predictions about the present
You should call him. He won’t have realised you’ve moved.
● with stative verbs (have, be, know, etc.) to talk about unfinished actions and situations that will continue into the point in the future from which the speaker is looking back
*By Thursday, we will have been disconnected for a week!
Continuous
will have been + ing
To talk about an action that is going to be in progress at some time before and/or until a given time in the future. It is usually used with a time expression such as by, in, at or before.
In a week, I’ll have been living in this flat for two years.
AMOUNTS AND COMPARISONS
Quantifiers
We use quantifiers with nouns to talk about how much or how many of something there is. Basic quantifiers include some, any, much, many, a lot of and no.
Did many people come to the product launch event?
Sorry, I don’t have a lot of time right now.
Fractions and percentages
We use quantifiers such as a little over, about, and nearly with fractions and percentages to express approximate quantities. These are often used when we’re talking about data.
Note: Phrases with these expressions can function as singular or plural, depending on the nouns they modify. The verb agrees with the noun, not with the quantifier.
Describing large quantities
We use the following quantifiers to express large quantities.
Note: Phrases with a large amount of, a great deal of, and a sizeable portion of are always followed by singular verbs. Phrases with the vast majority of and a considerable number of function as plural nouns and are always followed by plural verbs.
Describing small quantities
We use the following quantifiers to express small quantities.
Note: Phrases with a small amount of and a small portion of are always followed by singular verbs. The other expressions above function as plural nouns and are always followed by plural verbs.
Comparing amounts
We use the following quantifiers to compare two amounts.
CLEFT SENTENCES
Cleft means ‘divided’. A cleft sentence is one which is divided into two parts. The introductory part of a cleft sentence often uses wh- words, it or the thing + the verb be.
My business partner really understands accounting.→
What my business partner really understands is accounting.
or
Accounting is what my business partner really understands.
or
It’s accounting that my business partner really understands.
or
The thing my business partner really understands is accounting.
Cleft sentences create focus or emphasis on part of a sentence.
Cleft sentences with wh- words + noun
We use wh- … be / … be wh- to emphasize a noun or noun phrase:
Their day-to-day conflict management makes established companies successful.*→*
What makes established companies successful is their day-to-day conflict management.
or
Their day-to-day conflict management is what makes established companies successful.
*I love their office layout.*→
What I love is their office layout.
or
Their office layout is what I love.
Cleft structures with What are often used with verbs of emotion such as like, enjoy, hate, love, prefer, want, etc.
We really enjoyed the cultural life when we were in Berlin.*→*
What we really enjoyed when we were in Berlin was the cultural life.
or
The cultural life in Berlin is what we really enjoyed when we were in Berlin.
Cleft sentences with wh- words + verb
Notice that when the verb in the wh- clause is in the past, the verb be is also in the past.
We hired a new consultant.*→*
*What we did was hire a new consultant.
*We met Gina at a conference and offered her a job.*→
What happened was (that) we met Gina at a conference and offered her a job.
Cleft sentences with it
We use preparatory it + is/was + the language we want to emphasize + relative clause:
The smallest disagreements can grow into the biggest problems.*→*
*It’s the smallest disagreements that can grow into the biggest problems.
*You need to talk to Bill Adams.*→
It’s Bill Adams (who) you need to talk to.
Cleft sentences with the thing / thing to do
We make cleft sentences with the thing to emphasize:
● the noun
I don’t have time for email.*→*
The thing I don’t have time for is email.
or
Email is the thing I don’t have time for.
● the verb
Find an expert.*→*
The thing to do is find an expert.
Cleft sentences with the place, person, reason, etc
To introduce and emphasize information about a place, person, or reason that something is/was done, we use The place (where), The person (who), The reason (why). They are formed the same way as cleft sentences with the thing.
Two is the perfect number because fewer co-founders means fewer arguments.*→*
The reason why two is the perfect number is that fewer co-founders means fewer arguments.
Cleft sentences with the way
To introduce and emphasize information about how something is/was done we can use the way + verb.
You can get to know people by going to conferences.*→*
The way to get to know people is by going to conferences.
or
Going to conferences is the way to get to know people.
APPROXIMATION
With numbers
We use approximations when we talk about amounts to emphasize the scale of numbers rather than the exact amount.
These expressions mean at or slightly above or below the given number.
Note: Some is often used in more formal contexts or where we want to emphasize that the number is high.
He’s written some 30 novels.
We use nearly to mean a bit lower than the given number.
There were nearly 50 people in the meeting – 48, to be exact.
We use just over to mean a bit higher than the given number.
I wrote just over twenty emails before lunch. I think I wrote twenty-two.
We use as much as / as many as to emphasize that we think the given number is a large amount.
I sometimes send as many as 35 text messages.
Some days, as much as 50 per cent of my time is spent on the phone.
We use as little as / as few as to emphasize that we think the given number is a small amount.
You can buy a good guitar for as little as $300, although they usually cost more.
Teams can consist of as few as three players, but if you have five, you’ve a better chance of winning.
We use at least to emphasize we mean this number or above.
You should arrive at the airport at least three hours before your flight departure time.
We can also use the following expressions to approximate numbers.
There were sixty or so people at the party.
I saw a hundred*-odd** bicycles chained to the fence.*
We had hundreds of applications for the job.
My MP3 player has a thousand songs, or thereabouts.
Vague language
Sort of*** and *kind of*
We use kind of or sort of when we can’t think of a better way to describe something or to show we’re not being very precise in our description. They are used with:
● adjectives
It’s kind of hard to keep up with all the communication we receive every day.
The message he sent was sort of confusing.
● verbs
I kind of expected that he would disappoint us.
They sort of said they weren’t interested.
●nouns
I think working alone in the garden shed is kind of a man thing.
***Note: Sort of often comes between the article and the noun.
They were driving a sort of motorcycle, but with three wheels.
-ish
We can add the suffix -ish to approximate a number, or when we can’t think of a better way to describe something or we want to approximate a quality. We use a hyphen except with very frequent collocations such as tall, short, etc. Note that the spelling rules are the same as for comparatives (eglate→latish, fat→fattish)
He’s tallish – you know, taller than I am but not super tall.
Let’s meet at two-ish for a late lunch.
Some
We use some plus a singular noun to refer to an unknown or unnamed person or thing.
I’m always getting junk mail from some company in California.
I read about using an email filter in some computer magazine I read.
We can use some with a time reference, to talk about vague or undecided plans.
You should come and visit some weekend.
I’ll visit Peru some day.
We sometimes add or other, which can give the feeling that we aren’t being completely serious or respectful.
Don’t worry, we’ll get some expert or other to review our product. It will be fine.
He showed up with some colleague or other who wanted to join us for a meal.
Stuff and things
When we don’t know the name of an object, substance or material, or when the name isn’t important, we use stuff, which is uncountable, and things, which is countable.
He put some green stuff on his mosquito bites.
Whose things are these on the chair?
UNREAL PAST
Some expressions in English can be followed by past-tense forms even when the meaning is present or future. These are used when we talk about unreal or hypothetical situations.
I wish and if only are used with the past simple to express wishes for things that are unlikely to happen. If only is more emphatic than I wish.
If only / I wish my job was closer to home.
I wish* and if only are used with the past perfect for regrets.
If only / I wish I hadn’t turned down the job offer in Madrid.
**
*Wish*** + would is used with the infinitive to express dissatisfaction or annoyance and a desire for change.
I wish you*’d remember** to recharge my iPad after you’ve borrowed it.*
Wish + would* and If only are used to express a desire for someone else’s annoying action to change:
If only he wouldn’t talk on the phone so loudly.
Would* isn’t used if both clauses have the same subject.
I wish I had a bigger house. (Not I wish I would have a bigger house.**)
S***uppose**, supposing and what if are used to form questions about the consequences of hypothetical or possible situations or to make suggestions. Suppose and supposing are more formal than what if.
Suppose the business didn’t make any money – what would we do?
Supposing I were to help you / I help you find a new job – would you be interested?
We use the present tense when we think something is more likely to happen.
What if we run out of cash part way through the trip?
We use would rather or would sooner + subject + past tense to express a preference.
I’d rather / I’d sooner you didn’t text during the meeting.
I’d rather* and I’d sooner + infinitive without to can be used when there is no change of subject.
I’d rather not talk to you right now.
It’s also possible, though less common, to use the present instead of the past with would rather / would sooner.
I would sooner you get a job and start earning some money.
It’s (high) time*** + subject + past tense is used to say that action needs to be taken soon. High orabout can be added for emphasis.
It’s (high/about) time I found a job where I can use my degree.
For all of the above structures, were can be used instead of was, especially when the style is more formal.
INVERSION IN CONDITIONALS
In more formal and written contexts, we can form conditional sentences by putting an auxiliary verb before the subject, instead of using if. This is most commonly done with had, were and should.
Had I known that so many people were coming to the presentation, I’d have reserved a bigger room.
Were* + subject + statement
The second conditional is used to talk about a possible but currently untrue statement. Note we usewere not was even for first person.
Were I in a position to do so, I’d offer you a job today.
Were + subject + to is used to talk about possibilities in the future, but not impossible situations.
Were the company to relocate to Hong Kong, we’d pay for our employees*’ moving expenses.*
Were it not for (the fact that)* is used to show how a particular event or person has changed a situation.
Were it not for the fact that I have student loans to repay, I would work less.
Had* + past
The third (and mixed conditional) is used to describe any situation where a specific action or event in the past led to a specific outcome. It is often used for regrets.
Had I arranged for some interview coaching, I might have got the job.
Had it not been for (the fact that)* is very similar to Were it not for discussed above. It is used to show how a particular event or the action of a particular person in the past has changed a situation. Note that the negative auxiliaries are not contracted.
Had it not been for the fact that I bumped into Lee, I wouldn’t have heard about the job opening.
Had it not been for my wonderful science teacher, I would never have gone to university.
You can use should instead of if in more formal contexts.
Should you need any careers advice, don‘t hesitate to talk with one of our counsellors.
Should you ever want to visit my office, you’re welcome any time.
PURPOSE
We use the following structures to express the purpose of doing something.
(In order) to***
(in order) to + infinitive. To alone is less formal than in order to.
We stopped the car to change a flat tyre.
They put a guard at the entrance in order to prevent anyone from entering.
In order to prevent anyone from entering, they put a guard at the entrance.
The negative is in order not to.
We hurried in order not to be late.
so (that) / in order (that)***
so (that) / in order (that) + a statement. So that is less formal than in order that, and is more commonly used. They are often used with auxiliary verbs such as can or (more formally) may.
Please keep your phone switched on so that we can contact you if necessary.
The company paid for the party in order that everyone could attend.
In informal English, we can omit that after so.
I always keep my phone switched on so I can be contacted easily.
Let me know when you’re in town so we can meet up.
Present tense verbs can be used after so (that) and in order (that) to refer to the future:
Can you give this to Sheila now so that she has it at next week’s meeting?
When you land in New York tomorrow, call Edward so he doesn’t worry about you.
When so (that) and in order (that) are used to talk about the past, would and could are usually used before the verb.
We warned everyone about the virus so that their computers wouldn’t be damaged.
He arrived in Moscow on a Friday in order that he could have the weekend to see the sights.
We gave him a microphone so that he*’d** be more audible in the big hall.*
Note that so that and in order that are often used with a new subject.
In very formal English, we can use might.
They provided each worker with an electronic ID card so that they might track their movements at work.
so as to***
so as to + infinitive without to.
I turn my email off for several hours a day so as to be able to concentrate.
The negative is so as not to.
I always keep my phone switched on so as not to miss a call.
So as (not) to* is always followed by an infinitive without to, no matter what time is being referred to.
They moved to Manhattan so as to be closer to Melanie’s office.
I carry my laptop with me so as to make good use of the time on the train.
During the conference, we’ll have a day off in the middle so as to allow everyone to see a bit of Venice.
to avoid/prevent***
Avoid and prevent are both used to indicate the purpose of an action taken to make something nothappen.
We use to avoid to talk about an action we take so that something else doesn’t happen.
We took Flower Road to avoid the traffic on George Street.
We use to prevent … (from) + ing to talk about an action we take to stop a problem before it happens.
The windows are closed to prevent rain from damaging the floors.
for***
We use for + noun to describe the purpose of an action or thing.
Eric keeps these water bottles for emergencies.
For* also can be used to describe a purpose that includes someone else’s action.
We bought a phone for Liz to use when she visits.
CONTINUOUS ASPECT
Continuous verbs are made with be + -ing.
The continuous aspect is used to describe actions that are in progress at a specific time and often connects an action in progress with a later point in time. It is usually used to refer to actions that are temporary and ongoing rather than permanent or completed. The continuous aspect can refer to a past, present or future action.
Scientists are scanning people’s brains as part of their research into daydreaming.
We*'ll be writing** up our results tomorrow.*
We were exhausted. We*'d been working** since five in the morning.*
Note that past continuous forms are often used in a sentence with the past simple to indicate that an ongoing action is interrupted by another shorter action.
When he phoned yesterday I was daydreaming.
The continuous aspect is often used:
● to describe a new situation
I’ve quit my old job and I’m working in a bakery, now.
● to describe a change, development or trend
It’s getting harder to find good workers.
The average temperature had been increasing for years.
● for a temporary, but repeated action
My laptop is making a clicking noise.
Sometimes the choice of verb reflects the speaker’s attitude.
Compare:
I went to the gym every day when I was a student (and got really fit).
I was going to the gym a lot last month (but then I got lazy and stopped going).
Note that we can’t usually use the continuous when we describe how often something is repeated.
I fell asleep three times on the bus yesterday. NOT I was falling asleep three times on the bus yesterday.
With stative verbs
We rarely use the continuous form with verbs such as believe, know, realize, suppose, understand, agree, remember, wish etc. However, we sometimes use continuous forms if a dynamic use is intended. Compare:
I realize you will be disappointed if you don’t get accepted for the post.
I’m realizing he’s actually quite disappointed about this.
Note some verbs have a stative and a non stative use.
Compare:
I think Prague is a very interesting city.
I’m thinking of visiting Prague next year.
We can also use the continuous to make statements, requests and questions with hope, wonder andwish, etc. less direct.
***I***'m hoping you’ll be able to help me.
I was wondering if you might have ten minutes.
Are you wishing we hadn’t left the party so early?
This also works with non-stative verbs.
I need a lift home. Will you be leaving soon, by any chance?
Special uses of the continuous
● to make complaints and criticisms, using always (and other words with a similar meaning)
He’s always coming to class late.
She was forever forgetting to lock the door, and it really annoyed me.
**
Future**
● to speculate about what people may be doing now*
His flight was delayed, so he’ll just be arriving now.*
● to talk about planned events in the future
We’ll be heading south on Wednesday. We can’t leave before then.
**
Past**
● to soften statements or questions. It is often used in informal speech to report what someone says.
What were you saying? sounds more polite than What did you say?
‘Did you know Ella was buying a new flat?’ ‘Yes, she was telling us.’
● to make an action seem less significant. Compare:
I talked to the headmaster yesterday.
I was talking to the headmaster yesterday.
CAUSE AND RESULT
We can use a number of different verbs in English to show how one thing causes or is caused by another.
In sentences with kills, gives rise to, causes, brings about, leads to, contributes to, makes, produces, fosters the result follows the expression.
Fog results in poor visibility.
In sentences with is a consequence of, results from, is the result of and arises from, the result comes before the expression and the cause comes after.
Poor visibility is the result of fog.
Some verbs tend to be used when the speaker or writer feels that the result is negative, and others when the result is positive. Some can be used in either context.
Long working hours kill employee motivation.
Long working hours lead to / contribute to reduced concentration.
A sense of dissatisfaction can arise from / result from having no security.
Many accidents on the job are a consequence of / are the result of workers being very tired.
Colder weather gives rise to minor health complaints.
Noise causes the most problems in open-plan offices.
The slight decrease in traffic resulted from schools being closed for the day.
The closure of the school resulted in a slight decrease in traffic.
This policy has brought about significant changes in employment practices.
Training often produces improved sales results.
Many studies have shown that being in work contributes to feelings of well being.
A relaxed work environment fosters good communication.
We can also express cause and result using the conjunctions since, as and because. Since and as often go at the beginning of the sentence. Since is more formal than as.
*As* his daughter was ill, he took the day off.
Since his child was ill, he was obliged to take a day’s leave.
He stayed at home because his daughter was ill.
The prepositions due to, owing to, because of and on account of can also be used to explain cause. Strictly speaking, due to is adjectival (so used only with a noun or pronoun), whereas owing to is adverbial (so used after a verb and where it could be replaced by caused by).
Compare:
Due to the flu epidemic, staff numbers were very low.
The high absenteeism was owing to the flu epidemic.
In practice, many native speakers use owing to, due to, on account of and because of interchangeably.
I missed the first day of the conference owing to / due to / because of / on account of severe flight delays.
Thanks to* is used to explain why something positive has happened.
Thanks to increased funding, we have been able to help 30 per cent more people this year.
We can also express result using adverbs and adverbials: for this reason, as a result, therefore (formal),consequently (formal), that’s why, and thus (very formal or literary) can all replace so to talk about the result of something you’ve just mentioned.
It’s been a very cold winter. As a result / Therefore, staff have not always been able to get into the office.
It was snowing heavily. Thus, it was decided to abandon the expedition.
We can also use thus with a gerund to mean ‘in this way’.
It has been a very cold winter, thus leading to more work days missed.
INTENSIFYING ADVERBS
Adverbs modify adjectives, verbs or other adverbs to express time, place, degree or manner. Intensifying adverbs such as extremely, totally and so are a type of adverb of degree, which make the words they modify stronger.
My holiday turned into a disaster incredibly quickly.
I’m quite sure I’ll never go there again.
She disagreed with me entirely.
Note that some adverbs collocate more commonly with certain words than others. For example, it’s more common to say absolutely perfect than to say really perfect. A good dictionary will provide the most common collocations.
We use different adverbs to intensify gradable and ungradable adjectives. The intensifier always goes directly before the adjective it modifies.
Gradable and ungradable adjectives
Gradable adjectives can be measured on a scale, e.g. big: a house can be more or less big. Ungradable adjectives, on the other hand, are not measured on a scale. They express only extreme or absolute qualities, e.g. fantastic, empty.
Gradable: I thought my flat was pretty small, but compared to John’s, it’s quite big.
Ungradable: No one came to the concert. The theatre was completely empty.
When used with an ungradable adjective, verb or adverb,quite means ‘extremely’. With a gradable adjective, quite is not intensifying.
They were quite certain that there was a link between stress and health.
*Stress can quite literally make you ill.
Intensifying adverb + gradable adjective
extremely, highly, incredibly, really, so, very*
One extremely interesting finding was that even supposedly relaxing activities like going on holiday were never completely stress-free.
*We were incredibly lucky.
Intensifying adverb + ungradable adjective
absolutely, completely, entirely, quite, really, so, totally, utterly*
The results of their research made the connection totally clear.
Utterly* is more commonly used with negative adjectives.
Our fridge broke while we were on holiday, and when we got back, it was utterly disgusting.
Also note that really can be used with both gradables and ungradables.
Gradable: It’s really warm in here.
Ungradable: *It’s really boiling in here.
Gradable and ungradable verbs
Verbs, like adjectives, can be gradable or ungradable. For example, like is gradable and adore is ungradable. You can like something a little or a lot, but adore is absolute.
Gradable: I really like James.
Ungradable: We absolutely adore your cousin.
The verbs most commonly modified by:
● completely: be, have, change, agree, understand, ignore, go, remove, eliminate, lose, do, destroy, cover, satisfy, forget, disappear, get
● totally: be, agree, have, get, do, understand, change, feel, ignore, forget, lose, make, destroy, relax
● entirely: be, depend, make, base, focus, do, consist, rely, separate, go, build, disappear
In sentences with a direct object, the intensifying adverb can go before or after the verb it intensifies, or at the end of the sentence.
She entirely disagreed with him.
She disagreed entirely with him.
She disagreed with him entirely.
When used with negatives, they go before the verb:
We absolutely don’t want to cause any complications.
Utterly* is more commonly used with negative verbs.
In extreme cases, severe stress can utterly destroy a person’s health, confidence and well-being.
Verbs commonly modified by utterly: *destroy, exhaust, disgust, baffle, confuse
Negative intensifiers
We use these expressions to add negative emphasis.
I had no experience whatsoever.
They were not (in) the least (bit) interested in the local culture / not interested in the local culture in the least.
The weather was not at all what I had expected.
PASSIVE REPORTING VERBS 1
We can form passive reporting structures like this:
● Subject + be + past participle of reporting verb + to infinitive.
This structure can be used with present, past or future reference.
They are said to be the best surfers in the world.
The ship’s captain was presumed to have died in battle.
(= it was presumed then) or
The ship’s captain is presumed to have died in battle.
(= it is presumed now of a past event)
*The new energy source is expected to be cleaner.
These verbs are often used with this construction: *allege, assume, believe, consider, estimate, expect, find, know, prove, report, say, show, think, understand.
We can use the passive voice to report actions and events. We use reporting verbs in the passive when:
● we don’t know or cannot verify the source or agent of the information
No injuries have been reported.
● we assume the reader or listener is not interested in who the agent or source is
They are believed to have started exploring the cave at four in the morning.
● the agent or source is obvious from the context
100 people are known to have been arrested.
● when you want someone to remain anonymous
You’ve been reported to be driving without a licence.
**
PASSIVE REPORTING VERBS 2**
We can also form passive reporting structures like this:
● It + be + past participle of reporting verb + (that) clause
*It is known (that) ancient people climbed mountains.
These verbs are often used with this construction: *agree, allege, announce, assume, believe, claim, consider, decide, estimate, expect, fear, hope, know, presume, report, say, suggest, think, understand.
This construction can be also used with present, past or future reference.
It is said that they are the best surfers in the world.
It was presumed that the ship’s captain died in battle.
It is expected that the new energy source will be cleaner.
Notice the use of There.
It is known that there are many more dangerous sports. →
There are known to be many more dangerous sports.
**
QUALIFIERS**
A qualifier is a word or phrase that intensifies or softens the word that comes after it.
Fairly*** modifies adjectives and adverbs. It means ’to a limited degree’.
The chair was fairly easy to assemble.
**
*Quite*** often suggests a higher degree than fairly. It can also qualify nouns and verbs.
The instructions were quite confusing. I didn’t really understand them.
I quite enjoy working standing up.
It was quite a comfortable chair.
With an adjective + noun, quite comes before a/an.
The exercise ball came with quite a useful set of instructions.
**
*Pretty*** also modifies adjectives and adverbs, and expresses a higher degree than fairly and quite. It can also suggest‘more than usual’ and ‘more than expected’. Pretty is slightly less formal than quiteor fairly.
I assembled the chair pretty quickly.
**
*Rather*** is stronger than quite. It can modify adjectives, adverbs, nouns or verbs. It can express disappointment, criticism or surprise.
It’s rather uncomfortable.
It was rather a mistake.
When qualifying an adjective + noun, rather can come before or after a/an.
It was rather a / a rather low chair.
A bit, slightly***, and a little soften adjectives, adverbs and verbs. They can make a criticism sound less direct. A bit is less formal than slightly and a little.
The price seems a bit / a little / slightly high.
The poor construction of the chair surprised me a bit / a little / slightly.
The poor construction of the chair slightly surprised me.
A bit, a little and slightly can be used before comparative adjectives whereas quite, fairly and prettycannot.
The new chair is slightly better than the old one. (NOT The new chair is quite better than the old one.)
When we use a bit or a little before a non-comparative adjective, the meaning is usually negative.
He’s a bit difficult to get along with. (Not He’s a bit nice.)
We can use a bit of a/an before a noun.
It’s a bit of a problem.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
A clause is a group of words that contains at least a subject and a verb. A clause can be a full sentence, but is often just part of a sentence:
She sings. (a clause that is a full sentence)
You bring (a clause that isn’t a full sentence)
When we want to combine two or more ideas in one sentence, we can use multiple clauses.
The tour bus arrived.
The locals held a welcome party.
The tour bus arrived and the locals held a welcome party.
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When a clause could be a sentence on its own, it’s called a main clause. Two main clauses can be joined into one sentence with a conjunction such as and, but or or.
*
We use subordinate clauses to give more information about a main clause. The subordinate clause doesn’t make sense as a sentence on its own without the main clause, but the main clause makes sense without the subordinate clause. A subordinate clause can be joined to a main clause using a conjunction such as when, because or although. The clauses usually can go in either order:
When you get there, be sure to ask for a local guide.
Be sure to ask for a local guide when you get there.
*
In writing, you may choose to order the clauses so that the most important information is at the end of the sentence. This can help to give it more impact.
*
Hal shouted for joy after being rescued. →
*After being rescued, Hal shouted for joy.
Note that we use a comma after a subordinate clause when it begins the sentence.
The main clause and the subordinate clause can have different subjects.
I haven’t been to Laos, although David might have been.
*We had to borrow Leanne’s map because I didn’t have mine.
Note the following:
In case is used to introduce something that might or might not be a factor.
*In case you are unfamiliar with the idea of geotourism, the most popular definition of this very 21st-century concept is leisure travel that enhances the environment, culture, and the well-being of tourist destinations.
We use in case to describe an action before a possible thing happens and if to describe an action afteranother possible thing happens.
Compare：
Take these pills with you in case you feel seasick on the journey.
*You should take one pill if you feel seasick on the journey.
In the event that can replace in case in a more formal context.
In the event that a tourist becomes ill, they should contact the tour guide.
Given (that), considering (that), in view of the fact that (more formal), as and since refer to a factor that is already known in order to introduce another fact. Considering is usually used in a context that indicates some mismatch between the facts whereas as and since suggest one factor is usually the logical conclusion to another.
Considering global tourism is often blamed for ruining popular holiday destinations, the notion that tourism could save the world might seem surprising.
*We expected to get good service, as/since we’d paid so much.
Given that can be used in both examples above.
Provided/providing that means that one thing happens only if another happens. Unless is used to talk about something that only happens if something else doesn’t happen.
Compare:
Geotourism brings economic benefits to the hosts provided that businesses use local workers, services and supplies.
Geotourism brings economic benefits to the hosts unless businesses fail to use local workers, services and supplies.
In spite of the fact that*, although and even though are used to suggest that something is true as well as another factor which seems in conflict with it.
*But that’s what geotourism’s supporters claim, in spite of the fact that this is an apparent contradiction.
With certain subordinating conjunctions, a pronoun subject + the verb be can be left out or replaced by an -ing form or past participle. These include after, before, since, if, when, while, until, once, unlessand although. This happens in certain fixed expressions.
If necessary, we’ll pay more for a more environmentally friendly holiday.
Unless told otherwise, I’ll assume you’ll be on the ten o’clock flight.
When in doubt before buying a ticket, thoroughly investigate travel offers that seem too good to be true.
FUTURE IN THE PAST
When we talk about the future from the perspective of the past, we use a range of structures, depending on whether we are talking about predictions or intentions, and on the level of certainty and immediacy.
would + infinitive without to*
*We use would and would have to:
● report ideas held in the past about the future
In the 1970s, some experts believed the world would be much colder by 2000.
We thought Joe wouldn’t arrive until midnight, but he came at eleven.
● describe something in the past as if seen as a future prediction
The 20th Century would be a time of extraordinary change.
● hypothesize about different outcomes if the situation had been different, using the third or mixed conditionals
Airships and balloons would have become more common if hydrogen gas hadn’t been so dangerous.
I wouldn’t have called you, but I didn’t know who else to ask for help.
This construction is also used in the passive voice.
*You would have been offered the job, but you’d already taken another one.
bound to + infinitive without to*
*We use be bound to to talk about past beliefs about what was almost certain to happen in the future:
*Cars were bound to become more popular as the price went down.
I was bound to find a job eventually.
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It also can be used in the passive voice.
*The problem was bound to be discovered.
about to + infinitive without to*
*We use about to to talk about things in the past that were going to happen in the immediate future, or on the point of happening.
The climbers were about to give up when they realized they’d reached the top of the peak.
I was about to buy an MP3 player when a newer model came out.
It is also commonly used in the passive voice.
*The world record was about to be broken.
likely/unlikely to + infinitive without to*
*We use be likely/unlikely to to talk about things in the past that were seen as probable or not probable.
They had no idea when Jim was likely to arrive.
It was unlikely to be cold, so we didn’t take any warm clothes.
In the passive, it is formed like this:
*The idea was likely to be sold for a lot of money.
was/were going to + infinitive without to*
*We can use was/were going to in the following ways to talk about the future in the past:
● to make a prediction based on available information which may or may not have been fulfilled
It was going to be a very profitable investment.
● to talk about an intention which may or may not have been fulfilled
I was going to take a job as a bus driver, but I decided to go to university instead.
● to talk about a plan or arrangement which then changed
We were going to meet for lunch, but then Dave became ill.
● to report a thought
I knew I was going to need help, but I didn’t know who to ask.
● in reported speech
I told you it was going to be sunny today!
This construction is also used in the passive voice.
The rumour went around that a big discovery was going to be made.
was/were to
We can use was/were to😗*
**
● instead of was going to or would to talk about something in the past as if seen as a future prediction
The 1900s were to bring even more world-changing events.
● with have + past participle, to talk about a past plan or expectation, especially one that wasn’t fulfilled
I was to have travelled to Stockholm, but the trip was cancelled at the last minute.
They weren’t to have arrived until midday, but the flight was early and came in at 10:30.
● to report a past instruction
They said we were to let them know what time we were arriving.
to make a prediction based on available information which may or may not have been fulfilled
It was going to be a very profitable investment.
● to talk about an intention which may or may not have been fulfilled
I was going to take a job as a bus driver, but I decided to go to university instead.
● to talk about a plan or arrangement which then changed
We were going to meet for lunch, but then Dave became ill.
● to report a thought
I knew I was going to need help, but I didn’t know who to ask.
● in reported speech
I told you it was going to be sunny today!
This construction is also used in the passive voice.
The rumour went around that a big discovery was going to be made.
was/were to
We can use was/were to😗*
**
● instead of was going to or would to talk about something in the past as if seen as a future prediction
The 1900s were to bring even more world-changing events.
● with have + past participle, to talk about a past plan or expectation, especially one that wasn’t fulfilled
I was to have travelled to Stockholm, but the trip was cancelled at the last minute.
They weren’t to have arrived until midday, but the flight was early and came in at 10:30.
● to report a past instruction
They said we were to let them know what time we were arriving.
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