Grammar

# Articles

What is an article?

(1) Articles (a, an, the) are determiners or noun markers that function to specify if the noun is general or specific in its reference. Often the article chosen depends on if the writer and the reader understand the reference of the noun.
(2) The articles a and an are indefinite articles. They are used with a singular countable noun when the noun referred to is nonspecific or generic.
(3) The article the is a definite article. It is used to show specific reference and can be used with both singular and plural nouns and with both countable and uncountable nouns.

There are three kinds of nouns: Countable noun, Uncountable noun, and Proper noun.

A/An

A and an are used with singular countable nouns when the noun is nonspecific or generic. \textit{A} is used when the noun that follows begins with a consonant sound, while \textit{an} is used when the noun that follows begins with a vowel sound.

Sometimes \textit{a} or \textit{an} can be used for first mention (the first time the noun is mentioned). Then, in subsequent sentences, the article \textit{the} is used instead.

The

The is used with both singular and plural nouns and with both countable and uncountable nouns when the noun is specific.

The is used in the following categories of proper nouns: Museums and art galleries, Buildings, Seas and oceans, Rivers, Deserts, Periods and events in history, Bridges, and Parts of a country.

Use the when the noun being referred to is unique because of our understanding of the world.

Use the when a noun can be made specific from a previous mention in the text. This is also known as second or subsequent mention.

The is used with superlative adjectives, which are necessarily unique (the first, the second, the biggest, the smallest, the next, the only, etc.).

No Article

when a plural countable noun or a noncount noun is generic or nonspecific, no article is used.

Count and Noncount Nouns

Count Nouns

Count nouns can be separated into individual units and counted. They usually have both a singular and a plural form. Most English nouns are count nouns. However, the countable nouns only having a plural form in English are clothes, pants, jeans, shorts, and pajamas, which are often used with some sort of quantifier, or quantity word, to show how they are counted.

How are count nouns made plural?

(1) Count nouns are usually made plural by adding an –s or an –es.
(2) If the noun ends in –y, change the –y to –ies to make it plural. However, if a vowel proceeds the –y, add an –s to make it plural.
(3) If the noun ends in –o, add –es to make it plural.
(4) If the noun ends in –f or –fe, change the –f to a –v and add –es.
(5) Some count nouns have irregular plural forms, such as: two feet, two people, two teeth, and two criteria.

Noncount Nouns

Noncount (or uncountable) nouns exist as masses or abstract quantities that cannot be counted.

Here are some common categories of noncount nouns. Like all things in English, there may be exceptions.
(1) A mass: work, equipment, homework, money, transportation, clothing, luggage, jewelry, traffic

(2) A natural substance: air, ice, water, fire, wood, blood, hair, gold, silver

(3) Food: milk, rice, coffee, bread, sugar, meat, water

(4) An abstract concept: advice, happiness, health, education, research, knowledge, information, time

(5) A game: soccer, tennis, basketball, hockey, football, chess, checkers

(6) A disease: diabetes, measles, polio, influenza, malaria, hypothyroidism, arthritis

(7) A subject of study: economics, physics, astronomy, biology, history, statistics

(8) A language: Arabic, Chinese, Spanish, English

(9) An activity (in the –ing form): swimming, dancing, reading, smoking, drinking, studying

Double Nouns
Some nouns can be both count and noncount. When they change from a count to a noncount noun, the meaning changes slightly. In the noncount form, the noun refers to the whole idea or quantity. In the count form, the noun refers to a specific example or type, and it can be used with the indefinite article a/an or it can be made plural. Such as, life, cheese, and language.

Quantity Words

Quantity words are used to add information about the number or amount of the noun. Some quantity words can only be used with countable singular nouns (e.g., computer, pen, and crayon), some can only be used with countable plural nouns (e.g., printers, flashdrives, and keyboards), some can only be used with uncountable nouns (i.e., paper, ink), and some can be used with both plural countable nouns and with uncountable nouns.

With countable singular nouns: each, every, another. With countable plural nouns: several, a large/small number of, (not/too) many, a few*, (very) few*, and fewer.

With uncountable nouns (e.g., paper or ink): a great deal of, a large/small amount of, (not/too) much, a little*, (very) little*, and less.

With countable plural nouns and with uncountable nouns (e.g., printers, flashdrives, keyboards; paper, or ink): some, any, a lot of, hardly any, (almost) all, no, none of, not any, and other.

Note the difference between few/little (almost none) and a few/a little (some, but not many/much). Few/little tend to have a negative connotation. A few/a little tend to be more positive.

Modifier

A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that modifies—that is, gives information about—another word in the same sentence. A modifier can be an adjective (a word that modifies a noun), an adverb (a word that modifies a verb), a phrase or clause.

Dangling Modifiers

When a modifier is not modifying a specific word, we call it a dangling modifier.

Example: After consulting a selection of current publications, research in this area has been sparse.(In this example, it is not clear who is consulting the selection of current publications. In other words, there is no referent in the sentence.)

Revision 1: After consulting a selection of current publications, I determined that the research in this area has been sparse.

Revision 2: According to the selection of current publications, research in this area has been sparse.

Adjective

A descriptive adjective will usually fit into one of the following categories:

Category	Example
Appearance	attractive, burly, clean, dusty
Colour	azure, blue, cyan, dark
Condition	absent, broken, careful, dead
Personality	annoying, brave, complex, dizzy
Quantity	ample, bountiful, countless, deficient
Sense	aromatic, bitter, cold, deafening
Size and Shape	angular, broad, circular, deep
Time	ancient, brief, concurrent, daily

Order	Category	Examples
1	Determiner	the, my, those
2	Number	one, two, ninety-nine
3	Opinion	lovely, attractive, rare
4	Size	small, medium, large
5	Physical Quality	thin, lumpy, cluttered
6	Shape	round, square, triangular
7	Age	young, middle-aged, old
8	Colour	red, white, blue
9	Origin	British, German, Russian
10	Material	wood, metal, plastic
11	Type	L-shaped, two-sided, all-purpose
12	Purpose	cooking, supporting, tendering
13	Attributive Noun	service, improvement, head

Demonstrative Adjectives (指示形容词)

A demonstrative adjective is a special adjective (often called a determiner) that identifies a noun or pronoun by expressing its position as near or far (including in time), which are ‘this,’ ‘that,’ ‘these,’ and ‘those.’

Indefinite Adjective (不定形容词)

An indefinite adjective is an adjective used to describe a noun in a non-specific sense. The most common indefinite adjectives are any, each, few, many, much, most, several, and some. Note: Indefinite adjective are classified as “quantifiers” (a type of determiner) in contemporary grammar.

Interrogative Adjective (疑问形容性)

An interrogative adjective (also known as interrogative determiners) is a word that modifies a noun by asking a question, which are “what,” “which,” and “whose.”
Example: What car will they give us?

The difference between the interrogative adjectives “what” and “which” is subtle. Use “what” when the options are unknown. Use “which” when the options are known.
Example: (1) What car will they give us? (2) Which car will they give us?

The difference between the interrogative adjective and interrogative pronoun is that, if the interrogative adjective (aka determiner) modifies a noun or a pronoun, and the interrogative pronoun can not. Example: (1) Which is the greater? (2) Which risk is the greater?

The difference between the interrogative adjectives with interrogative adverbs is as following. The interrogative adverbs are “why,” “where,” “when,” and “how.”, and are also used to ask questions, but the answer to these questions will be an adverb. The answer to an interrogative adjective is always a noun.
Example: (1) What food would you like? (Cake) (2) When do you have to leave? (At four o’clock)

Interrogative adjectives modify nouns and are used in interrogative sentences (i.e., questions). The interrogative adjectives can also appear in indirect questions, such as: She told us which one was most likely.

Possessive Adjective (所有格形容词)

A possessive adjective sits before a noun (or a pronoun) to show who or what owns it, and they are my, your, his, her, its, our, their, and whose.

Predicate Adjective (谓语形容词)

A predicate adjective is an adjective that follows a linking verb and modifies (i.e., describes) the subject of the linking verb. Example: Everything is funny.

Adjective Phrase (形容词性短语)

An adjective phrase is a group of words headed by an adjective that modifies a noun or a pronoun. In an adjective phrase, the head adjective can be at the start, the middle or the end of the phrase.
Example: (1) I am sad about the result; (2) I am awfully sad about the result; (3) I am very sad.
The other words inside the adjective phrase are known as the dependents of the head adjective, which are typically adverbs (“awfully” and “very”) or prepositional phrases, such as the “awfully” and “about the result” in the aboving second sentence.

The adjective phase can be classified into two cagetories: attributive adjective and predicative adjective.

(1) Attributive Adjective (定语形容词)

An attributive adjective sits inside the noun phrase of the noun it modifies.
Example: The beautifully carved frames are priceless.

(2) Predicative Adjective (表语形容词)

A predicative adjective sits outside the noun phrase of the noun it modifies.
Typically, a predicative adjective is linked its noun with a linking verb (e.g., “to be,” “to look,” “to smell,” “to taste”).
Example: The frames are \textit{beautifully carved} and priceless.

adjective acting as the post-modifier

postpositive adjectives (后置形容词) are most common with pronouns.
Such as, someone interesting, those present, something evil.

(1) when it modifies the indefinite pronoun, such as somebody, someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything, nobody, nothing, it must be put behind the indefinite pronoun. Example: This isn’t anything important.
(2) when the adjective phrase act as the modifier, it must can put behind its modified noun. Example: (a) I think he is a man suitable for the job; (b) We need a place twice larger than this one.
(3) Sometimes, when a pair of adjectives act as the modifier, one adjective can be put behind the modifier noun considering the rhythm and balance. Example: There was a huge cupboard, simple and beautiful.
(4) when the predicate adjective act as the modifier, it must be put behind its modified noun. Example: (a) He must be the best violinist alive; (b) The house ablaze is next door to me.
(5) Some adjectives, such as past, last, next, nearby, following, acts the modifier, it can be put before or behind the noun. Example: (a) in past years / in years past; (b) the following days / the days following.
(6) When some adjectives, such enough, opposite modify the noun, it can be put before or behind the noun. Example: The people in the house opposite [the opposite house] never draw their curtains.
(7) some adjectives, such as present, can acts pre-modifier or post-modifier, but its meaning is different. Example: (a) What’s your present feeling? (present=现在的); (b) He was the only Englishman present. (present=在场的)

Adverb

An adverb is one or many words used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Example: (1) She swims extremely quickly; (2) He ran \textit{at 10 miles per hour}; (3) He ran \textit{when the police arrived}; (4) He ran \textit{to the shops}; (5)He ran \textit{every day}; (6) He ran \textit{quicker than me}.

When an adverb modifies a verb, it can often be categorized as one of the following: Adverb of Manner, Adverb of Time, Adverb of Place, and Adverb of Degree.

Adverbial Clause

When an adverb consists of more than one word, it is known as an adverbial phrase, e.g., He ran like the wind. If this phrase contains its own subject and verb, it’s called an adverbial clause, e.g., He ran like his life depended on it.

Adverbial phrases and clauses can usually be categorised as one of the following:
(1) Adverbs of Time
(2) Adverbs of Place
(3) Adverbs of Manner
That dog is walking around like he owns the place.
(4) Adverbs of Degree
(5) Adverbs of Condition, example, I will come with you provided my suit is back from the dry cleaners.
(6) Adverbs of Concession
(7) Adverbs of Reason

The properties of an adverbial clause:
(1) An adverbial clause is an adjunct, which means it can be removed without the sentence being grammatically wrong.
(2) An adverbial clause is a dependent clause, which means it cannot stand alone as meaningful sentence in its own right.
(3) An adverbial clause usually starts with a subordinating conjunction (e.g., “although,” “because,” “if,” “until,” “when”)
(4) An adverbial clause will contain a subject and a verb, which makes it a clause as opposed to a phrase.

Preposition

Preposition Basics

A preposition is a word or group of words used before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to show direction, time, place, location, spatial relationships, or to introduce an object. Some examples of prepositions are words like in, at, on, of, and to.

Prepositions in English are highly idiomatic. Although there are some rules for usage, much preposition usage is dictated by fixed expressions. In these cases, it is best to memorize the phrase instead of the individual preposition.

A Few Rules

Prepositions of Direction
To refer to a direction, use the prepositions to, (in)to, and on(to). Example: Drive on(to) the grass and park the car there.

Prepositions of Time

To refer to one point in time, use the prepositions in, at, and on.

To refer to extended time, use the prepositions since, for, by, during, from…to, from…until, and (with)in.

Prepositions of Place

To refer to a place, use the prepositions in (the point itself), at (the general vicinity), on (the surface), and inside (something contained).

To refer to an object higher than a point, use the prepositions over and above. To refer to an object lower than a point, use the prepositions below, beneath, under, and underneath.

To refer to an object close to a point, use the prepositions by, near, next to, between, among, and opposite.

Prepositions of Location

To refer to a location, use the prepositions in (an area or volume), at (a point), and on (a surface).

Prepositions of Spatial Relationships

To refer to a spatial relationship, use the prepositions above, across, against, ahead of, along, among, around, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, from, in front of, inside, near, off, out of, through, toward, under, and within.

Prepositions Following Verbs and Adjectives

Some verbs and adjectives are followed by a certain preposition. Sometimes verbs and adjectives can be followed by different prepositions, giving the phrase different meanings. To find which preposition(s) follow(s) the verb or an adjective, look the verb or adjective up in an online dictionary, such as Merriam Webster, or use a corpus, such as The Corpus of Contemporary American English. Memorizing these phrases instead of just the preposition alone is the most helpful.

Some Common Verb + Preposition Combinations

About: worry, complain, read

At: arrive (a building or event), smile, look

From: differ, suffer

For: account, allow, search

In: occur, result, succeed

Of: approve, consist, smell

On: concentrate, depend, insist

To: belong, contribute, lead, refer

With: (dis)agree, argue, deal

Ending a Sentence With a Preposition

In academic writing, you may decide that it is worth revising your sentences to avoid ending with a preposition in order to maintain a more formal scholarly voice.

Example: My research will focus on the community the students lived in.

Revision: My research will focus on the community in which the students lived.

Example: I like the people I am working with.

Revision: I like the people with whom I am working.

Conjunctions

Basics of Conjunctions

Conjunctions are parts of speech that connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating, paired, and subordinating.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions connect words or phrases that serve the same grammatical purpose in a sentence. There are seven main coordinating conjunctions in English, which form the acronym FANBOYS: \textit{for}, \textit{and}, \textit{nor}, \textit{but}, \textit{or}, \textit{yet}, and \textit{so}.
Notation: (1) \textit{For} is rarely used as a conjunction in modern English; (2) When the conjunctions \textit{and} and \textit{or} connect three or more words or phrases, use a serial comma to separate items in the series.

Transitional words such as \textit{however} and \textit{therefore} can also function as conjunctions.

Paired Conjunctions

Paired conjunctions consist of two words or phrases that help make a point or establish alternatives, such as \textit{both…and}, \textit{not only…but also}, \textit{either…or}, and \textit{neither…nor}.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join a subordinate clause to a main clause and establishes a relationship between the two. There are many subordinating clauses, but here are some of the most common: \textit{after}, \textit{although}, \textit{as much as}, \textit{as soon as}, \textit{as long as}, \textit{as though}, \textit{because}, \textit{before}, \textit{how}, \textit{if}, \textit{in order to}, \textit{in order that}, \textit{once}, \textit{since}, \textit{than}, \textit{\textit{that}, \textit{though}, \textit{unless}, \textit{until}, \textit{when}, \textit{whenever}, \textit{where}, \textit{wherever}, \textit{whether}, and \textit{while}.

There are two ways to structure a sentence using a subordinating conjunction: (1) Main clause + subordinate clause; (2) Subordinate clause + , + main clause.

that as a Conjunction for Noun Clauses

One important use of \textit{that} is for embedding (inserting) a certain type of dependent clause called a noun clause into an independent clause. Frequently, such \textit{that}-clauses serve as the direct object of a reporting verb (such as found, reported, posited, argued, claimed, maintained, and hypothesized) to introduce a paraphrase, summary, or quotation.

For example:
The authors hypothesized that there would be significant results.

In formal written English, for clarity, most academic writers choose to keep \textit{that} when it introduces a noun clause. Leaving out \textit{that} can cause the reader to misread (at first anyway) the subject of the dependent clause as being the object of the reporting verb.

Sentense

sentense type

There are four types of sentenses: Simple, Compound, Complex, and Compound-Complex.

\testbf{Simple sentence}
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and modifiers. However, it contains only one independent clause. Example, She completed her literature review.

\testbf{Compound Sentences}
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These two independent clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.

\testbf{Complex Sentences}
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.

If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If, on the other hand, the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is not a comma separating the two clauses.
Example:
(1) Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to follow.
(2) Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.

\testbf{Compound-Complex Sentences}
Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Example: The rain was falling, and the weather was cold, thought it was supposed to be spring.

Clause

A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb. A clause functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, which can be denoted as the noun clause, the adjective clause, and the adverbial clause, respectively.

There are two types of clause: An independent clause is the one that can stand alone as a sentence; A dependent clause is the one that is usually a supporting part of a sentence.

adverb clause

Adverb clause (also called adverbial or subordinate clauses) is one dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjunction, and it provide information about the when, where, why, and how of the independent clause.

Relative Clause (关系从句)

An relative clause (also called an adjectival or adjective clause) will meet three requirements: (1) it will contain a subject and verb, bringing the links between it and its modified noun; (2) it will begin with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, that, or which) or a relative adverb (when, where, or why), which makes it become a clause; (3) it will tell us something about the noun, which makes it become a kind of adjective.

The relative clause will follow one of these two patterns:
Relative Pronoun or Adverb + Subject + Verb
Relative Pronoun as Subject + Verb

Punctuate an adjective clause correctly.
A relative clause connects ideas by using pronouns that relate to something previously mentioned and allows the writer to combine two independent clauses into one sentence. There are two types of relative clauses: restrictive and nonrestrictive.

Relative Pronouns
Referring to a human Referring to something other than a human Possessive
Restrictive who, whom, that* which, that** whose
Nonrestrictive (with commas) who, whom which whose

Restrictive Clause and Nonrestrictive Clause

A restrictive clause (also known as an essential clause or phrase) provides necessary information about the noun or noun phrase in the sentence, which is not reparated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
Restrictive clauses are more common in writing than nonrestrictive clauses.
The relative pronoun acting as the object of the sentence in the relative clause can be omitted.
Example: He carpets (which) you bought last year have gone moldy.

A nonrestrictive clause (also known as a nonessential clause or phrase) uses commas to show that the information is additional to a sentence.
If the information between the commas is omitted, readers will still understand the overall meaning of the sentence.
Example: The hypothesis, which I tested throughout the research, was rejected.

Noun Clause

A noun clause is a dependent clause that acts as a noun, acting as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, predicate nominatives (表语主格), or objects of a preposition. Noun clauses begin with words such as how, that, what, whatever, when, where, whether, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, and why.

-ing Clauses (GERUNDS)

If the -ing clause is first, we write a comma (,) between the clauses, such as: Feeling tired, I went go to bed early. If the -ing clause is at the end of the sentence, the comma isn’t needed. There are three usage conditions: simultaneous events, consecutive events, and explain something. These clauses are used more in written English than in spoken English.

When -ing clause is used for the simultaneous events, We must use -ing for the longer action, Example: Jim hurt his arm playing tennis (= while he was playing tennis). In this case, we can also use -ing after while or when. Example: Jim hurt his arm (while) playing tennis.

When -ing clause is used for the consecutive events, we use HAVING + Past Participle for the fist action, such as: Having found a job, Brian celebrated with his wife to be. we can also use after verb+ING, such as: After finishing her dinner, she had a shower.

When we use an -ing clause to explain something or to say why somebody does something, the -ing clause usually comes at the beginning of the sentence. Example: Not having a car, she finds it difficult to get around (= because she doesn’t have a car).

Parallel Construction

Parallel ideas must be presented in parallel grammatical form, which means that each part of a sentence uses the same grammatical structure. Examples of Parallel Construction: between…and…, both…and…, either…or…, neither…nor…, and not only…but also…

Parallel Construction in a Series： sentences with series, or lists, require particular attention to parallel construction. Example: This paper will address No Child Left Behind benchmarks, effective teaching strategies, and multimedia instructional aids.

Most Common Verb Tenses in Academic Writing

According to corpus research, in academic writing, the three tenses used the most often are the simple present, the simple past, and the present perfect. The next most common tense is the future; some major assessments, course assignments, and the doctoral study proposal at Walden are written in this tense for a study that will be conducted in the future.

Simple present: Use the simple present to describe a general truth or a habitual action. This tense indicates that the statement is generally true in the past, present, and future. Example: The hospital admits patients whether or not they have proof of insurance.
Simple past: Use the simple past tense to describe a completed action that took place at a specific point in the past (e.g., last year, 1 hour ago, last Sunday). In the example below, the specific point of time in the past is 1998. Example: Zimbardo (1998) researched many aspects of social psychology.
Present perfect: Use the present perfect to indicate an action that occurred at a nonspecific time in the past. This action has relevance in the present. The present perfect is also sometimes used to introduce background information in a paragraph. After the first sentence, the tense shifts to the simple past. Example: Many researchers have studied how small business owners can be successful beyond the initial few years in business. They found common themes among the small business owners.
Future: Use the future to describe an action that will take place at a particular point in the future (at Walden, this is used especially when writing a proposal for a doctoral capstone study). Example: I will conduct semistructured interviews.

APA Style Guidelines on Verb Tense

APA calls for consistency and accuracy in verb tense usage (see APA 3.06). In other words, avoid unnecessary shifts in verb tense within a paragraph or in adjacent paragraphs to help ensure smooth expression.
(1) Use the past tense (e.g., researchers presented) or the present perfect (e.g., researchers have presented) for the literature review and the description of the procedure if discussing past events. (2) Use the past tense to describe the results (e.g., test scores improved significantly). (3) Use the present tense to discuss implications of the results and present conclusions (e.g., the results of the study show…).

Per APA 3.18, refer to the work of another researcher in the past. Example: Patterson (2012) presented, found, stated, discovered…

However, there can be a shift to the present tense if the research findings still hold true. Example: King (2010) found that revising a document three times improves the final grade.

Verb Tense Guidelines When Referring to the Document Itself

To preview what is coming in the document or to explain what is happening at that moment in the document, use the present or future tense. Example: (1) In the next chapter, I will discuss…; (2) In the next chapter, I discuss…

To refer back to information already covered, such as summaries of discussions that have already taken place or conclusions to chapters/sections, use the past tense. Example: In summary, in this section, I presented information on…

Simple Past Versus the Present Perfect

Rules for the use of the present perfect differ slightly in British and American English. Researchers have also found that among American English writers, sometimes individual preferences dictate whether the simple past or the present perfect is used.

Keep in mind, however, that the simple past is used for a completed action. It often is used with signal words such as yesterday, last week, 1 year ago, or in 2015 to indicate the specific time in the past when the action took place. Example: He completed the employee performance reviews last month.

The present perfect focuses more on an action that occurred without focusing on the specific time it happened. Note that: For the present perfect, the action has occurred, and the specific time is not given; The present perfect focuses more on the result of the action and the simple past; The present perfect is often used with signal words such as since, already, just, until now, (not) yet, so far, ever, lately, or recently. Example: He has completed the employee performance reviews.

–ing form

(1) The -ing form is used in progressive verb tenses with auxiliary verbs (helping verbs). These are in active voice. Example: I was writing when the pizza arrived.

(2) The -ing form can function as a noun. These nouns are called gerunds and can be the subject of a clause, followed by a third-person singular (he/she/it) form of the verb. Example: Hiking is one of my favorite activities.

(3) The -ing noun (or gerund) can be the direct object of certain verbs. Some verbs that are followed by a gerund are the following: Admit, Avoid, Consider, Deny, Discuss, Practice, Recall, and Suggest. Example: He often avoids answering his phone.

(4) The -ing form is used after a preposition. Example: Her experience in interviewing will be beneficial.

(5) Adjectives are sometimes formed using -ing. Example: I read an interesting book.

(6) The -ing form is sometimes used to include additional information in a sentence in a reduced relative clause. Example: The pens sitting on the desk belong to the teacher.

Past Participles

Here are four common uses of past participles:
(1) The past participle is used with have auxiliaries (helping verbs) in active voice. Example: She had completed her degree before being hired.
(2) The past participle is used after be auxiliaries in passive voice. Example: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
(3) The past participle is sometimes used in a phrase to supply additional information. These participial phrases come from relative clauses with a passive meaning. Example: (a) The ideas presented at the conference are important to remember. (b) Taken by surprise, Alice hugged her long lost friend.
(4) The past participle is sometimes used as an adjective. Example: The received goods were damaged in shipping.

-ing or Past Participle?
Sometimes both the -ing and the past participle (-ed) forms can function as adjectives. However, each form has a different meaning. Notice that the -ing adjective refers to a thing and the past participle (-ed) adjective refers to a person. Example: The rules are confusing; I am confused.

Parenthesis

A parenthesis, sometimes called an “interrupter”, is a word, phrase, or clause inserted into a sentence as an explanation or afterthought. A parenthesis is usually offset with parentheses (i.e., round brackets), commas, or dashes. These are called parenthetical punctuation marks. When a parenthesis is removed, the surrounding text is still grammatically sound. In a sentence, parenthesis mainly plays the role of explanation, explanation and summary, etc. In addition, it can also be used to express the speaker’s attitude and views, to emphasize, to attract the attention of others, to change the topic, to connect the preceding and the following.

(1) Parenthesis denoted as by adverb
such as: certainly, surely, indeed, however, fortunately, luckily, probably, personally.

For example: (a) Certainly, pets can help children develop friendship skills; (b) Yes, indeed, I intend to go.

(2) Parentesis denoted by the prepositional phrase
Such as: in fact，in one’s opinion, of course，above all /first of all, by the way.

For example: (a) In fact, those people have been promoted; (2) The only honest answer is, of course, yes.

(3) Parentesis denoted by infinitive
Such as: to be frank, to tell(you )the truth, to be sure.

For example: To be frank, I don’t like him.

(4) Parentesis denoted by V-ing (gerund)
Such as: generally speaking, generally considering, strictly speaking, judging from/by

Such as: Generally speaking, I am very satisfied with this job.

(5) Parentesis denoted by the clause
Such as: I think, I hope, I’m afraid, What’s more, What’s worse, You see.

For example: (a) You can win the game, I think. (b) Well, you see, you shouldn’t really feel that way about it.

(6) Parenthesis donoted by the adjective or adjective phrase
Such as: sure enough, worse still, true, funny, strange to say, needless to say, most important of all.

For example: (a) Sure enough, he came out with all the news we wanted. (b) True，it would be too bad. © Wonderful，we have won again. (d) All this, needless to say, had been culled second-hand from radio reports.

(7) Parenthesis denoted by the past participle
Painted white, we like the house better.
Note: It is called the parenthesis, which is because this kind of past participle is independ and have no logic subject.

(8) Parenthesis introduced with the round brackets or dashes

Such as: (a) He was (strange as it seems) an excellent sportsman; (b) He was -to me at least, if not to you- a figure that was worth having pity on.

Subject–Verb Agreement Rules

Subjects and verbs must agree in number.
(1) If the subject is singular, the verb must be singular too.
(2) If the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.
(3) When the subject of the sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and, use a plural verb.
(4) When there is one subject and more than one verb, the verbs throughout the sentence must agree with the subject.
(5) When a phrase comes between the subject and the verb, remember that the verb still agrees with the subject, not the noun or pronoun in the phrase following the subject of the sentence.
(6) When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.
(7) When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is closest to the verb. This is also called the rule of proximity.
(8) The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, nobody, somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
(9) Noncount nouns take a singular verb.
(10) Some countable nouns in English such as earnings, goods, odds, surroundings, proceeds, contents, and valuables only have a plural form and take a plural verb.
(11) In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb. Since there is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows the verb.
(12) Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but are considered singular and take a singular verb. Some examples are group, team, committee, family, and class. However, the plural verb is used if the focus is on the individuals in the group. This is much less common.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive Verbs

A transitive verb is a verb that requires an object to receive the action. Example:The speaker discussed different marketing strategies in the video.

A transitive verb can take more than one object, which have two forms: an indirect object may come between a transitive verb and the direct object, or the indirect object could be in the form of a prepositional phrase. An indirect object is only needed if the action is being done to or for somebody; when using a transitive verb, you need to include a direct object, but you may not need to include an indirect object.

Intransitive Verbs

An intransitive verb does not take an object. However, there may be other information after the verb, such as one or more prepositional phrases or an adverb. Example: Each student must find his or her own note-taking strategy.

English Subjunctive

虚拟语气的十大句型

一、虚拟条件句:
条件状语从句是非真实情况，在这种情况下要用虚拟语气。
1．条件从句与现在事实不一致，其句型为：
句型1：If ＋主语＋过去时，主语＋ should (could, would, 或might) ＋动词原形
(1) If I were you, I would study hard.
(2) If it rained, I would not be here now.
2．条件从句与过去事实不一致，其句型为：
句型2：If ＋主语＋had＋过去分词，主语＋ should（could, would, 或might）＋ have ＋过去分词
(3) If the doctor had come last night, the boy would have been saved.
(4) If I had not studied hard, I would have failed in the exam last term.
3．条件从句与将来事实不一致，其句型为：
句型3：If ＋主语＋过去时/ should ＋动词原形/ were to＋动词原形，主语＋ should (could, would, 或might) ＋动词原形
(5) If it should rain tomorrow, we would stay at home.
(6) If I were to go to the moon one day, I could see it with my own eyes.
(7) If you missed the film tonight, you would feel sorry.

注意问题：
1．If条件句中绝对不可以出现would。
2．根据句中的时间状语，有时可能出现“混合虚拟”的情况，即主句可能是现在的情况，条件句也许是发生在过去的情况，但都要遵守上述句型。如：
(8) If you had studied hard before, you would be a college student now and you would graduate from a college in four years’ time.
3．条件句中如果出现were, had, should可省去if，将主语与这些词倒装。例如：
(9) Had the doctor come last night, the boy would have been saved.
(10) Were I to go to the moon one day, I would see it with my own eyes.
(11) Should it rain tomorrow, we would stay at home.

二、名词性虚拟语气：
在表示命令(inist等)、建议(suggest等)、要求(demand等)、惊叹(surprise等)时的名词性从句中需用虚拟语气，基本句型：
句型4：主语＋（should）＋动词原形
(12) Mother insisted that John (should) go to bed at 9 o’clock.（宾语从句）
(13) It was required that the crops (should) be harvested at once.（主语从句）
(14) It is surprising that she shouldn’t pass the math exam. （主语从句）
(15) The suggestion that he (should) be invited was rejected.（同位语从句）
(16) Their demand is that their wages (should) be increased.（表语从句）
注意：在这种句子中绝不可以出现would,must, could等。

三、虚拟语气在一些特殊词中的使用或含蓄条件句：
句型5：wish后的宾语从句
与现在愿望不一致：主语＋过去时；
与过去愿望不一致：主语＋ had ＋过去分词/ could ＋ have＋过去分词；
与未来愿望不一致：主语＋ would / could ＋动词原形。如；
(17) I wish I were you.
(18) I wish I had visited the White House when I was in the States.
(19) I wish I could meet you tomorrow at the party.
句型6：It’s time句型（当It’s time后用that从句时应该为“主语＋ should ＋动词原形”或“主语＋过去时”）
(20) It’s time that you went / should go to school.
句型7：If only引起的感叹句相当于“How I wish ＋宾语从句”
(21) If only he could come! 他要能来就好了。
(22) If only I had known the answer! 我要早知答案就好了。
句型8：would rather, as if（though）引导的句子也需使用虚拟，表示过去的情况用过去完成时，表示现在与将来的情况
用过去时。
(23) I’d rather you posted the letter right away.
(24) I’d rather you had returned the book yesterday.
(25) She loves the children as if they were hers.
(26) Alan talked about Rome as if he had been there.
句型9：without, but, but for, but that, otherwise引起的短语或句子常暗含着虚拟条件。
(27) Without you, I would never know him.
(28) But for your cooperation, we wouldn’t have done the work so well.
(29) But that she was afraid, she would have said no.
(30) I would be most glad to help you, but I’ am busy now.
(31) I should have come to the party yesterday, but I was busy.
(32) I am busy now; otherwise I would do you the favor!
句型10：If it were not for … / If it hadn’t been for … (要不是因为……)，其后面的主句也需使用虚拟。
(33) If it were not for his help, I wouldn’t go home now.
(34) If it hadn’t been for the determined captain, all the passengers on the board wouldn’t have been saved.

英语语法

表语

表语（predicative）是一个子句中谓语的一部分，通常出现在系词（be）或连系动词（例如seem、appear）之后，或作为某些动词（例如call、make、name）的第二补语出现。表语最常见的类型是表语形容词（又称谓语性形容词）和表语名词（又称谓语性名词）。所有表语的主要特征是它们用于表达其赋给“主体”的属性，而该主体通常是子句的主语，但有时也可以是子句的宾语。表语和定语之间有明显区别。此外，表语通常不是子句的论元，并且通常也不是子句的修饰语。 因此，表语、论元和修饰语互不相同。
表语的涵义，以及主语补足语和宾语补足语二者的涵义，在很大程度上是重叠的。
例子：
最广为人知的表语即形容词或名词性成分：
The idea was ridiculous. (形容词作表语描述主语)
He seems nice. (形容词作表语描述主语)
Bob is a postman. (名词短语作表语描述主语)
We painted the door white. (形容词作表语描述宾语)
They elected him president.(名词作表语描述宾语)
They called Jill a thief. (名词短语作表语描述宾语)
“描述主语”、“描述宾语”是指表语表达某种赋予主语或宾语的属性。
尽管表语最常由形容词或名词性成分充当，但大多数词类都可作表语：
The snake is in the bag. (介词短语作表语)
That is when it happens. (表语从句)
It is soon. (副词作表语)
不过，一些词类是不能作表语的。 例如，以-ly结尾的副词不能作表语：
The event was splendidly. –错误示范，以-ly结尾的副词不能作表语
Our ideas are insightfully. –错误示范，以-ly结尾的副词不能作表语

表语不是修饰性成分。
eg. The man is friendly. (表语形容词)
the friendly man (定语形容词)

倒装

主语和谓语是句子的核心，它们之间有两种语序：一是主语在谓语之前称为自然语序(Natural Order)；二是主语在谓语之后则称为倒装语序(Inverted Order)。为了强调、突出等语的目的而颠倒原有语序的句式叫做倒装句。在倒装句中，颠倒了的成分可以恢复原位而句意基本不变，句法成分不变。

倒装句就是将正常的陈述语序加以变化，主要作用是强调被提前的部分，倒装句可分为全部倒装和部分倒装两种：

全部倒装

谓语动词提前至主语之前为全部倒装。

完全倒装（Full Inversion），又称“全部倒装”，是指将句子中的谓语全部置于主语之前，此结构通常只用于一般现在时和一般过去时。

（1）将表语和地点状语(多为介词短语)置于句首加以强调时，其后通常用倒装语序。
eg. Around the lake are some apple trees.

注意：在表语置于句首的倒装结构中，要注意其中的谓语应与其后的主语保持一致，而不是与位于句首的表语保持一致。

（2） 以 here， there， now， then， out， in， up， down， off， away, over等方向性副词开头的句子，且句子主语是名词时，句子用完全倒装。但是，当主语为代词，则不用倒装。
eg. Here comes the postman.

（3）There be +主语 + 地点或时间状语
eg. There are some birds singing in the tree.

(4) 介词位于句首使用完全倒装
eg. Down jumped the man from the horse.

(5) 过去分词位于句首使用完全倒装
eg. Scattered on the floor were several books and magazines.

(6) 表示祝愿的句子使用完全倒装
eg. Long live our great country!

部分倒装

助动词或情态动词提至主语之前，谓语动词位置不变，即为部分倒装。

大致上有五种情况是需要使用部分倒装句的，在使用的时候，大家不仅要注意引导词和关键词，也要注意主从句和时态的问题，还有固定搭配的问题也绝不能忽视。

一、否定词提前

否定词用于句首时，句子应进行部分倒装。
否定词常用的有：Not only…(but also)，Not until，No sooner….(than)，Never/ Rarely/Seldom，Hardly/Scarcely…(when)，Few/Little，Neither/Nor，At no time，Under no circumstances，On no account，In no way，其中not only, no sooner, hardly, scarcely 分别和but (also), than, when搭配使用，需注意：后一组词之后的部分不进行倒装，只有否定词之后的部分倒装。
eg. Hardly had she gone out when a student came to visit her.
No sooner had she gone out than a student came to visit her.
Not only you but also I am fond of music.

二、so,neither,nor,such,often作部分倒装

eg.Tom can speak French. So can Jack.
She won’t go to that university, neither will I.

三、only在句首
only + 副词(when, before, if, after等)或only+介词状语(由in, under, by, on, after等引导)提前，必须部分倒装。
例句：Only then did he realize how stupid he had been.
Only in this way can you answer the question.

四、as/though引导让步状语从句使用部分倒装

eg. Try hard as he will,he never seems able to do the work satisfactorily.

五、here,there引导的部分倒装句中，当主语是代词时，就要用部分倒装句。
eg. Here we are.

as, though 引导的倒装句

as/though引导的让步从句必须将表语或状语提前(形容词、副词、分词、实义动词提前)。
　 Child as /though he was, he knew what was the right thing to do.
　　= Though he was a small child, he knew what was the right thing to do.
注意： a.　句首名词不能带任何冠词。
　　 b.　句首是实义动词，其他助动词放在主语后。如果实义动词有宾语和状语，随实义动词一起放在主语之前。
　　Try hard as he will, he never seems able to do the work satisfactorily.
　　= Though he tries hard, he never seems…
　　虽然他尽了努力，但他的工作总做的不尽人意。

定语从句

定语从句是由关系代词和关系副词引导的从句，用来修饰名词或代词，起到定语的作用，所以叫做定语从句。定语从句的作用是作定语修饰主句的某个成分，通常分为限定性和非限定性从句两种。
定语从句不同于单词作定语的情况，它需要放在被修饰的词（即先行词）之后，一般由关系代词来引导，关系代词必须放在定语从句之首。被修饰的词叫先行词，由关系词（关系代词或关系副词）引出。

非限定性从句

非限制性定语从句，即非限定性定语从句，在句中主要起补充说明作用，缺少也不会影响全句的理解。在非限定性定语从句的前面往往有逗号隔开，如若将非限定性定语从句放在句子中间，其前后也都需要用逗号隔开。在非限定性定语从句中，不能用that，而用who，whom代表人，用which代表事物。

非限制性定语从句的关系词有：
①引导非限定性定语从句的关系代词：as，which。
②引导非限定性定语从句的关系副词主要有：when，where。
注意：不能用that作为关系代词的两种情况：①非限定性定语从句；②介词+关系代词

非限制性定语从句的分类

1. who引导的非限制性定语从句
   which引导的非限定性定语从句来说明前面整个句子的情况或主句的某一部分。
   eg. Our guide，who was a French Canadian，was an excellent cook.

2. which引导的非限制性定语从句
   关系代词which在非限制性定语从句中所指代和修饰的可以是主句中的名词、形容词、短语、其他从句或整个主句，在从句中作主语、动词宾语、介词宾语或表语。
   ① which指代主句中的名词，被指代的名词包括表示物、婴儿或动物的名词、表示单数意义的集体名词以及表示职业、品格等的名词。
   eg. These apple trees，which I planted three years ago，have not borne any fruit.
   ② which指代主句中的形容词。
   eg. She was very patient towards the children，which her husband seldom was.
   ③ which指代主句中的某个从句。
   eg. He said that he had never seen her before，which was not true.
   ④ which指代整个主句。
   eg. In the presence of so many people he was little tense, which was understandable.
   注意：在引导限定性定语从句时，that有时相当于in which, at which, for which或at which。
   eg. Attitudes towards daydreaming are changing in much the same way that(in which) attitudes towards night dreaming have changed.

3. who引导的非限制性定语从句
   who引导的非限制性定语从句，在句中作从句的主语。
   eg. My gardener，who is very pessimistic，says that there will be no apples this year.

4. whom引导的非限制性定语从句
   关系代词whom用于指人，在句中作动词宾语和介词宾语，作介词宾语时，介词可位于句末。
   eg. Peter, whom you met in London, is now back in Paris.

5. whose引导的非限制性定语从句
   whose是关系代词who的所有格形式，在从句中作定语。whose通常指人，也可指动物或无生命的事物。
   例句：The boy, whose father is an engineer, studies very hard.

6. when引导的非限制性定语从句
   关系副词when在非限制性定语从句中作时间状语，指代主句中表示时间的词语。
   例句：He will put off the picnic until May 1st, when he will be free.

7. where引导的非限制性定语从句关系
   副词where在非限制性定语从句中作地点状语，指代主句中表示地点的词语。
   例句：They went to London，where they lived for six months.

8. as引导的非限制性定语从句
   as引出非限定性定语从句时，有时as也可用作关系代词，代替整个主句，对其进行说明但通常用于像as we all know, as it is known, as is known to all, as it is, as is said above, as always mentioned above, as is usual, as is often the case, as is reported in the newspaper等句式中。as在非限定性定语从句中作主语、表语或宾语，且引出的从句位置比较灵活，可位于句首或句末，也可置于主句中间。通常均由逗号将其与主句隔开。as有“正如……， 就像……”之意。
   例句：As is known to the United States, Mark Twain is a great American writer.(as在从句中作主语)

限制性定语从句

限制性定语从句对被修饰的先行词有限定制约作用，使该词的含义更具体，更明确。限制性定语从句不能被省略，否则句意就不完整。非限制性定语从句与先行词关系不十分密切，只是对其作一些附加说明，不起限定制约作用。如果将非限制性定语从句省去，主句的意义仍然完整。

关系代词

1. that既可代表事物也可代表人，which代表事物；它们在从句中作主语或宾语，that在从句中作宾语时常可省略代词，which在从句中作宾语不可以省略。而且，如果which在从句中作“不及物动词+介词”的介词的宾语，注意介词不要丢掉，而且介词总是放在关系代词which的前边，但有的则放在它原来的位置。
2. which作宾语时，根据先行词与定语从句之间的语义关系，先行词与which之间的介词不能丢。
   例句：I lost my key in the theatre where I saw this film=====I lost my key in the theatre in which I saw this film.
3. 代表物时多用which，但在带有下列词的句子中用that而不用which，这些词包括当先行词是anything，everything，nothing，none等不定代词时，或者是由every，any，all，some，no，little，few，much等修饰时等，这时的that常被省略。还有先行词前有序数词或形容词最高级修饰时，或先行词就是序数词或最高级时以及先行词中既有人又有物时，还有句中前面有which时，都只能用that。
4. who和whom引导的从句用来修饰人，分别作从句中的主语和宾语，whom作宾语时，要注意它可以作动词的宾语也可以作介词的宾语。

关系副词
关系副词=介词+关系代词
why=for which
where=in/ at/ on/ … which (介词同先行词搭配)
when=during/ on/ in/ … which (介词同先行词搭配)
whose=of which/ whom

1. where是关系副词，用来表示地点的定语从句。
2. when引导定语从句表示时间[注]值得一提的是，表示时间“time"一词的定语从句只用when引导，有时不用任何关系代词，当然也不用that引导。
   例句：By the time you arrive in London，we will have stayed there for two weeks. I still remember the first time I met her. Each time he goes to business trip，he brings a lot of living necessities，such as towels，soap，toothbrush etc.
3. whose是关系代词，修饰名词作定语，相当于所修饰成分的前置所有格.它引导的从句可以修饰人和物，当它引导的从句修饰物体时，可以与 of which 调换，表达的意思一样。
4. 当从句的逻辑主语是some，any，no，somebody，anybody，nobody，something，anything，everything或nothing时，常用there is来引导。
   例句：There is somebody here who wants to speak to you. 这里有人要和你说话。

限定性定语从句与非限定性定语从句的区别

限制性定语从句

1、限定性定语从句: 从句不能省略，如果省略整个句子意思不完整。
2、限定性定语从句: 先行词可以用that 引导。
3、限定性定语从句: 引导词有时可以省略。
4、限定性定语从句:主句与从句不需要用逗号隔开。
5、限定性定语从句: 从句只修饰先行词。
非限定性定语从句：从句既可以修饰先行词，也可以修饰整个句子或句子的一部分。

定语从句和同位语从句的区别

1. 和先行词的关系不同。 同位语从句说明先行词的具体内容，二者是同位关系;定语从句修饰限定先行词，二者是修饰关系。
   The news that he told me is that Tom would go abroad next year. (第一个that引导的从句是定语从句,that在从句中作宾语)
   The news that Tom would go abroad is told by him. (同位语从句,that在句中不作任何成分)
2. 定语从句由关系代词或关系副词引导，关系词在从句中担当相应的句子成分，作宾语时经常被省略。同位语从句主要有连词that引导，在从句中不担当成分，也可由when、where、who、how、what、whether等连词引导，这些连词在从句中担当成分。
   The news that he told me is true.(定语从句)
   The news that he will come back is true.(同位语从句)

定语从句中as的用法简述

as引导非限制性定语从句时有许多常用句式：
(1) As is known to all, the earth moves around the sun. （as is known to all 众所周知）
(2) As is reported in the newspaper, the economic of our country has increased in last year. （as is reported in the newspaper 如报纸所报道的）
(3) As is said above，this plan can be carried out totally. （ as is said above 综上所述）
(4) As was expected, he was elected as the chairman. （as was expected正如预料的那样）

as引导限制性定语从句时，需要注意两个结构：

1. such…as表示“像……这（那）样”
   eg. He is such an unselfish man as we respect．
2. the same．．．that．．．表示同一人或物，而the same．．．as．．．表示同种类的东西，两者都引导定语从句，试比较下列两个句子：
   This is the same pencil that I lost.
   This is the same pencil as I lost.

限制性定语从句与非限制性定语从句的四大区别

1. 在句中作用不同
   限制性定语从句对被修饰的先行词有限定制约作用，使该词的含义更具体，更明确。限制性定语从句不能被省略，否则句意就不完整。非限制性定语从句与先行词关系不十分密切，只是对其作一些附加说明，不起限定制约作用。如果将非限制性定语从句省去，主句的意义仍然完整。
2. 外在表现形式不同
   限制性定语从句因与先行词关系密切，所以不可以用逗号将其与主句隔开；非限制性定语从句则与其相反。
   例如：
   Do you remember the girl who taught us English?
   We walked down the village street, where they were having market day.
3. 先行词内容有所不同
   大多数限制性和非限制性定语从句的先行词往往为某一个词或短语，而特殊情况下非限制性定语从句的先行词也可为整个主句，此时非限制性定语从句常由which引导。
   例如：
   A middle-aged woman killed her husband, which frightened me very much. (先行词为整个主句，此时应由which引导限制性定语从句。)
4. 关系词的使用情况有所不同
   (1) that不可用于引导非限制性定语从句: 所有关系代词和关系副词均可引导限制性定语从句，大多数关系代词和关系副词可引导非限制性定语从句，但that不可。
   例如：
   He didn’t pass the exam, which disappointed me.
   (2) 关系代词替代情况不同
   关系代词whom 在限制性定语从句中作宾语时可用who 代替whom ，但whom 在非限制性定语从句中作宾语时不可用who 来代替。
   例如：
   This is the girl whom I met in the street. (先行词the girl 在限制性定语从句中作宾语，可用who 代替whom 。)
   (3) 关系代词省略情况不同
   关系代词在限制性定语从句中作宾语时可以省去，非限制性定语从句的所有关系词均不可省。例. This is the book (which / that) he lost yesterday. (先行词the book 在限制性定语从句中作宾语，关系代词which 或that 可以省略。)

定语从句中只能用引导词that的情况

1. 当先行词为everything、all、little、much、none等不定代词时，只能用引导词that。
   eg. There is nothing that can stop him from doing it.
2. 当先行词既包含人又包含物时，只能用引导词that。
   eg. They are talking of the stars and their apperances that interest them.
3. 当先行词前有 last、next、only、very等词修饰时，只能用引导词that。
   eg. The only person that he can remember is his mother.
4. 当先行词是疑问代词who，which，what或主句以这些词开头时，只能用引导词that。
   eg. Who is the girl that is playing the guitar?
5. 当先行词为形容词最高级或被形容词最高级修饰时， 只能用引导词that。
   eg. This is the most interesting story book that I have ever read.

由“介词+关系代词”引导的定语从句

1. 由“介词+关系代词”引导的定语从句主要用于正式文体，在非正式文体中通常将介词放至句末。
   如：This is the man to whom I referred.
   This is the man (whom) I referred to.

2. 直接用于介词后作宾语的关系代词which不能换成that，直接用于介词后作宾语的关系代词whom不能换成who。但若介词用于句末，则用作宾语的which, whom也可换成that, who，或者省略不同。
   如：This is a subject about which we have talked a lot.(which不能换成that，也不能省略)
   This is a subject which we have talked about a lot. (which可以换成that，也可以省略)

3. 关系副词when, where, why根据情况有时可换成“介词+关系代词which”。如： That is the day when [=on which] he was born. 那就是他出生的日子。That is the house where [=in which] he lived. 那就是他住过的房子。That is the reason why [=for which] he must apologize. 那就是他必须道歉的原因。

4. 在很正式的文体中，“介词+关系代词”引导的定语从句可紧缩成“介词+关系代词+不定式”结构。如：
   There the children had a garden in which to play. (很正式)
   There the children had a garden in which they could play. (较正式)
   There the children had a garden to play in. (较口语化)
   注：这类“介词+关系代词++不定式”结构中的介词不能没有，也不能放在句末。如不能说There the children had a garden which to play in.

状语从句

状语从句 （Adverbial Clause） 指句子用作状语时，起副词作用的句子，可以修饰谓语、非谓语动词、定语、状语或整个句子。一般来说，根据其作用，状语从句可分为时间、地点、原因、条件、目的、结果、让步、方式和比较等从句，一般由连词(从属连词)引导，也可以由词组引起。从句位于句首或句中时通常用逗号与主句隔开，位于句尾时可以不用逗号隔开。

状语从句的引导词

1、时间状语从句：
常用引导词：when, as, while, as soon as, before, after, since , till, until
特殊引导词：the minute, the moment, the second, every time, the day，the instant, immediately , directly, no sooner … than, hardly …when, scarcely … when instantly
2、地点状语从句:
常用引导词：where
特殊引导词：wherever, anywhere, everywhere
地点状语从句一般由连接副词where, wherever等引导，已经形成了固定的句型:
句型1：Where＋地点从句，（there）＋主句。
【注意】此句型通常译成“哪里……哪里就……”；主句在从句后面时，there可用可不用；如果主句在从句的前面时，一般都不用there。
例如：Where there is no rain, farming is difficult or impossible.在没有雨水的地方，耕作是困难的，或根本不可能的。
Where there is a will, there is a way. 有志者事竟成。
句型2：Anywhere/ wherever＋地点从句，＋主句。
【注意】anywhere本身是个副词，但是，常可以引导从句，相当于连词，意思相似于wherever, anywhere引导的从句可位于主句之前，也可以位于主句之后。 而wherever本身就是个连词，表示“在何处，无论何处”。例如：
Wherever the sea is , you will find seamen.有海就有海员。
3、原因状语从句:
常用引导词：because=in that, since=now that(既然), as, for(补充说明)
特殊引导词：seeing that, now that, in that, considering that, given that（考虑到）
4、目的状语从句：
常用引导词：so that, in order that
特殊引导词： for fear that（唯恐/生怕），in the hope that（带着…希望）, for the purpose that（带着…目的）, to the end that
5、结果状语从句：
常用引导词：so … that, such … that
特殊引导词：such that, to the degree that, to the extent that, to such a degree that
6、条件状语从句：
常用引导词：if, unless,
特殊引导词：as/so long as（只要）, only if, providing/provided that（倘若）, supposing that（倘若）, in case that（以防）, on condition that
7、让步状语从句：　
常用引导词：though, although, even if, even though（即使）
特殊引导词： as(用在让步状语从句中必须要倒装)，while ( 一般用在句首 )，no matter …， in spite of the fact that, whatever, whoever, wherever, whenever, however, whichever, as if=as though（仿佛）
8、比较状语从句：
常用引导词：as(同级比较), than(不同程度的比较)
特殊引导词：the more … the more … ; just as …， so…;
A is to B what /as X is to Y（A对B来说，像X对Y一样）;
no … more than; not A so much as B
9、方式状语从句：
常用引导词：as, as if, how
特殊引导词：the way

名词性从句

名词性从句：从句在主句中的成分相当于名词，又被称为名词性从句，在句子的功能相当于名词词组，能担任主语、宾语、表语、同位语、介词宾语等，因此根据它在句中不同的语法功能，名词性从句又可分别称为主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。

分类

主语从句

一. 概念：在句子中担当主语的从句就叫做主语从句，通常放在主句谓语动词之前或由形式主语it代替，而本身放在句子末尾。

主语从句使用陈述语序，其通常结构为“引导词 + 主语 + 谓语 + 其他成分", 但当连接代词同时充当从句主语时，其结构为“连接代词 + 谓语 + 其他成分”。

二. 引导词：

1. that引导
   eg. That you are coming to London is the best news I have heard this long time.

2. whether引导
   eg. Whether they would come to conference was a question.

3. 连接代词引导: who,whom, whose, which, whoever, whomever, whichever, whatever, why, how, where, when
   eg. Whoever is top from wins the game when two matched players meet.

4. 连接副词引导: therefore, besides, otherwise, however, moreover, still, thus, meanwhile
   eg. How this happended is not clear to anyone.

5. 关系代词型what引导
   eg. What shoked me was that she never wash her own clothes.

三. 形式主语it:
6. 对关系代词型what引导的主语从句，可以使用形式主语。
eg. It is clear enough what he meant.

7. 如果句子是疑问句，则必须用带形式主语it的结构.
   eg. Is it true that all of us need to to conference?

8. 有时为了避免句子显得“头重脚轻”，可用it作形式主语放在句首，而把真正的主语放在句末。
   eg.
   It’s a pity that he didn’t come.
   It’s not yet known what she did.
   It was uncertain whether he could come or not.

表语从句

一、概念：

要弄懂什么是表语从句，就一定要知道什么是表语。表语用来说明主语是什么或者怎么样，由名词、形容词或相当于名词或形容词的词或短语充当，和连系动词一起构成谓语。表语从句就是在复合句中用作表语的从句。

二、关联词：

1. 连系动词有be，look，seem，sound，appear等。
   eg. It looks as if a huge diamond.

2. 从属连词whether，as，as if / though。
   eg. It sounds as if someone is knocking at the door.

3. because，why。
   eg. That’s why I fall in love with him.

4. 连接代词：who，whom，whose，what，which，whoever，whatever，whichever
   连接副词: where，when，how，why
   eg. The problem is who we can get to replace her.

5. 从属连词that
   eg. The trouble is that the key was broken.

三、虚拟语气
在表示建议、劝告、命令含义的名词后的表语从句，谓语动词需用“should+动词原形” 表示，should可省略。常见的词有：advice，suggestion，order，proposal，plan，idea等。

eg. My idea is that we (should) leave here tonight.

宾语从句

它就是在复合句中作宾语的名词性从句，通常放在主句谓语动词（及物动词）或介词之后。

1. 由that引导的宾语从句（that 通常可以省略）
   eg. I heard that be joined the army.

2. 由what, whether (if) 引导的宾语从句
   eg.1) She did not know what had happened. 2) wonder whether you can change this note for me.

3. 动词＋间接宾语＋宾语从句
   eg. She told me that she would accept my invitation.

宾语从句用以区分主语从句的几个特征：

1. 引导词：what\which\whose\when\whether\if\where

2. 语序：宾语从句必须是用陈述语句。（名词性从句都是陈述语序）
   eg. I think that you must work harder.

同位语从句

一、同位语从句指的是在复合句中充当同位语的从句，属于名词性从句的范畴，同位语从句用来对其前面的抽象名词进行解释说明，被解释说明的词和同位语在逻辑上是主表关系。同位语从句的先行词通常为answer, hope, fact, truth, belief, news, idea, promise, information, conclusion, order, suggestion, problem, question, thought, report, belief, decision, doubt, opinion, theory等抽象名词。例如：

1. The news that his heath is failing made us sad.
   他健康状况不佳的消息使我们很难过。
2. I have no idea where they are spending their holidays.
   我不知道他们在哪里度假。
3. The question who should do the work requires consideration.
   谁该干这项工作的问题需要考虑。
4. There is no doubt that he will come here again.
   他会再来这里， 这是毫无疑问的。
5. He was tortured by the doubt whether he would accept their presents.
   他被是否接受他们的礼物这个疑虑所折磨着。

二、掌握同位语从句的用法要注意以下两个问题：

1. 同位语从句有时可以不紧跟在它所说明的名词后面， 而是被别的词隔开， 以使得整个句子的结构显得平衡。例如：
   He got the news from Mary that the sports meeting was put off.
   Word came that Hussein had been captured.
2. 同位语从句和定语从句结构相似，但是，同位语从句相当于名词的作用，而定于从句相当于形容词的作用，同位语从句对名词性成分加以补充说明，是该名词性成分具体内容的体现。定语从句对先行词加以限制或修饰、说明先行词的性质或特征。定语从句的引导词均在该定语从句中充当特定的句子成分(that在其引导的限定性定语从句中充当主语、宾语或者表语，充当定语从句中宾语的that经常可被省略)。例如：
   1） We can’t solve the problem how we can travel faster than light.
   (how引导的从句表示其前面的名词the problem的具体内容， 属于同位语从句)
   2）I can’t remember the problem that they have.
   (引导词that就是that引导的从句中have的宾语， the problem的具体内容也没有得到说明， 故本句中that引导的从句是修饰problem的定语从句)
   3）I won’t believe the fact that he lied to his mother.
   (that引导同位语从句对fact的具体内容进行说明， that在其中不充当具体的句子成分)
   4）I won’t believe the fact (that) he told me.
   (that引导定语从句对fact进行限定， that在该从句中充当宾语)

5. The news that he told me is that Tom would go abroad next year.
   (句中的第一个that引导定语从句限定先行词news， 第二个that引导表语从句)
   6)We haven’t yet settled the question where we are going to spend our summer vacation.
   7）We have no idea at all where he has gone.
   (where引导同位语从句说明idea的具体内容)
   8)But now the question comes to their minds，“Did she die young because she was a clone?”

名词性从句连接词

连词(5个)
1、that (本身无意义。引导单一的宾语从句时that常可省略，但引导主语从句、表语从句、同位语从句时that通常不被省略)
2、whether,if (均表示“是否”表明从句内容的不确定性)
3、as if ,as though (均表示“好像”，“似乎”)

连接代词(10个)：what, whatever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose,whosever, which, whichever

连接副词(7个)：when, where, how, why, whenever, wherever, however

不可省略的连词：

1、介词后的连词。

2、引导主语从句和同位语从句的连词不可省略。例句：That she was chosen made us very happy.

3、在从句中做成分的连词。

whether与if 引导名词性从句的区别

whether与if 均为"是否"的意思。 但在下列情况下，只可用whether：
(1) whether引导主语从句并在句首。
eg. Whether he can come to the party on time depends on the traffic.
(2) 引导表语从句。
eg. The question is whether we can get in touch with her.
(3)whether从句作介词宾语。
eg. I am thinking about whether I should quit my present job.
(4) if与whether都可以与or not 连用，但后面紧跟or not 时只能用whether。
eg. We didn’t know whether or not she was ready.(此时只能用whether)

名词性从句的语序

名词性从句的词序与陈述句语序相同，尤其注意那些由连接代词who(m), whose, which, what 和连接副词 when, where, why 等引导的名词性从句，不要受它们在特殊疑问句中用法的影响而误用疑问句词序。

例句：Why was she crying? 她为什么在哭?

名词性从句的时态问题

1、当主句的谓语动词是过去式时，宾语从句若不是一个客观事实或真理，其谓语动词也必须用某种过去时态。
eg. She said that she didn’t want to know. 她说她不想知道。

2、when, if 这两个词既可引导名词性从句，也可引导状语从句。当它们引导名词性从句且表示将来意义时，要直接使用将来时态；但当它们引导状语从句且表示将来意义时，则必须用一般现在时表示将来意义。
eg. I don’t know when he will come, but when he comes, I’ll call you. 我不知道他什么时候，但当他来的时候，我会打电话给你。

注意：句中第一个when 引导的是宾语从句，故用将来时态表示将来意义;第二个when 引导的是时间状语从句，故用一般现在时表示将来意义。

注意

that与what引导名词性从句的区别

that引导名词性从句只起连接作用，在从句中不作任何成分，无意义，在宾语从句通常省略，但在主语从句、表语从句和同位语从句中均不能省略；what除引导从句外，还在从句中作成分，意为“所……的(东西)”，在含义上等于“名词+that”。如：

1. 用that的例子
   That she lacks experience is obvious.。
   The police learned that he wasn’t there at that time.
   My idea is that you shouldn’t have left the country.
2. 用what的例子
   What (=The thing that) he said was true.
   That’s what I want to know.

Whoever和no matter who区别

一、whoever的意思“任何…的人”，在意义上大致相当于 anybody who。Whoever可引导名词性从句，在从句中可用作主语或宾语，例如：

1. I’ll take whoever wants to go.
2. She can marry whoever she chooses.
3. Whoever wants the book may have it.
4. Whoever comes will be welcome.
5. Whoever you invite will be welcome.
6. Whoever breaks this law deserves a fine.
7. I’ll give the ticket to whoever wants it.
8. The police, or whoever, would not think of looking for him here.
9. You can have whoever you like to visit you.
10. Whoever was waiting for them there had command of the situation.

二、whoever 和no matter who 的意思都是无论谁,不管谁的意思.
但whoever可以作为引导让步状语从句的连接代词,而no matter who 不能.
whoever和no matter who 是疑问词 + ever和no matter + 疑问词中的一个特例,这类词的主要区别是：

1. 疑问词 + ever可引导名词性从句,在主从句中要充当一定的部分.
   如：
   Whoever breaks the rule must be punished.
2. 疑问词 + ever还可引导让步状语从句.如：
   Whoever breaks the rule,he must be punished.
3. no matter + 疑问词只能引导让步状语从句.如：
   No matter who breaks the rule,he must be punished.