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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 2: Transmission Fundamentals...................................................................... 5

Chapter 3: Communication Networks......................................................................... 8

Chapter 4: Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite .............................................................. 14

Chapter 5: Antennas and Propagation....................................................................... 17

Chapter 6: Signal Encoding Techniques.................................................................... 22

Chapter 7: Spread Spectrum........................................................................................ 28

Chapter 8: Coding and Error Control........................................................................ 34

Chapter 9: Satellite Communications........................................................................ 44

Chapter 10: Cellular Wireless Networks..................................................................... 48

Chapter 11: Cordless Systems and Wireless Local Loop......................................... 54

Chapter 12: Mobile IP and Wireless Access Protocol............................................... 56

Chapter 13: Wireless LAN Technology....................................................................... 59

Chapter 14: Wi-Fi and the IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Standard............................. 61

Chapter 15: Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15....................................................................... 65

Chapter 2

Transmission Fundamentals

Answers to Questions

2.1 A continuous or analog signal is one in which the signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time while a discrete or digital signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains one of a finite number of constant levels for some period of time and then changes to another constant level.

2.2 Amplitude, frequency, and phase are three important characteristics of a periodic signal.

2.3 2π radians.

2.4 The relationship is lf = v, where l is the wavelength, f is the frequency, and v is the speed at which the signal is traveling.

2.5 The spectrum of a signal consists of the frequencies it contains; the bandwidth of a signal is the width of the spectrum.

2.6 Attenuation is the gradual weakening of a signal over distance.

2.7 The rate at which data can be transmitted over a given communication path, or channel, under given conditions, is referred to as the channel capacity.

2.8 Bandwidth, noise, and error rate affect channel capacity.

2.9 With guided media, the electromagnetic waves are guided along an enclosed physical path, whereas unguided media provide a means for transmitting electromagnetic waves through space, air, or water, but do not guide them.

2.10 Point-to-point microwave transmission has a high data rate and less attenuation than twisted pair or coaxial cable. It is affected by rainfall, however, especially above 10 GHz. It is also requires line of sight and is subject to interference from other microwave transmission, which can be intense in some places.

2.11 Direct broadcast transmission is a technique in which satellite video signals are transmitted directly to the home for continuous operation.

2.12 A satellite must use different uplink and downlink frequencies for continuous operation in order to avoid interference.

2.13 Broadcast is omnidirectional, does not require dish shaped antennas, and the antennas do not have to be rigidly mounted in precise alignment.

2.14 Multiplexing is cost‑effective because the higher the data rate, the more cost‑effective the transmission facility.

2.15 Interference is avoided under frequency division multiplexing by the use of guard bands, which are unused portions of the frequency spectrum between subchannels.

2.16 A synchronous time division multiplexer interleaves bits from each signal and takes turns transmitting bits from each of the signals in a round‑robin fashion.

Answers to Problems

2.1 Period = 1/1000 = 0.001 s = 1 ms.

2.2 a. sin ( 2 p f t – p) + sin ( 2 p f t + p) = 2 sin ( 2 p f t + p) or 2 sin ( 2 p f t – p) or - 2 sin ( 2 p f t)

b. sin ( 2 p f t) + sin ( 2 p f t – p) = 0.

2.3

N	C		D		E		F		G		A		B		C
F	264		297		330		352		396		440		495		528
D		33		33		22		44		44		55		33
W	1.25		1.11		1		0.93		0.83		0.75		0.67		0.63

N = note; F = frequency (Hz); D = frequency difference; W = wavelength (m)

2.4 2 sin(4pt + p); A = 2, f = 2, f = p

2.5 (1 + 0.1 cos 5t) cos 100t = cos 100t + 0.1 cos 5t cos 100t. From the trigonometric identity cos a cos b = (1/2)(cos(a + b) + cos(a – b)), this equation can be rewritten as the linear combination of three sinusoids:

cos 100t + 0.05 cos 105t + 0.05 cos 95t

2.6 We have cos2x = cos x cos x = (1/2)(cos(2x) + cos(0)) = (1/2)(cos(2x) + 1). Then:

f(t) = (10 cos t)2 = 100 cos²t = 50 + 50 cos(2t). The period of cos(2t) is p and therefore the period of f(t) is p.

2.7 If f1(t) is periodic with period X, then f1(t) = f1(t +X) = f1(t +nX) where n is an integer and X is the smallest value such that f1(t) = f1(t +X). Similarly, f2(t) = f2(t +Y) = f2(t + mY). We have f(t) = f1(t) + f2(t). If f(t) is periodic with period Z, then f(t) = f(t + Z). Therefore f1(t) + f2(t) = f1(t + Z) + f2(t + Z). This last equation is satisfied if f1(t) = f1(t + Z) and f2(t) = f2(t + Z). This leads to the condition Z = nX = mY for some integers n and m. We can rewrite this last as (n/m) = (Y/X). We can therefore conclude that if the ratio (Y/X) is a rational number, then f(t) is periodic.

2.8 The signal would be a low-amplitude, rapidly changing waveform.

2.9 Using Shannon 's equation: C = B log2 (1 + SNR)

We have W = 300 Hz (SNR)dB = 3

Therefore, SNR = 100.3

C = 300 log2 (1 + 100.3) = 300 log2 (2.995) = 474 bps

2.10 Using Nyquist's equation: C = 2B log 2 M

We have C = 9600 bps

a. log 2 M = 4, because a signal element encodes a 4-bit word

Therefore, C = 9600 = 2B ´ 4, and

B = 1200 Hz

b. 9600 = 2B ´ 8, and B = 600 Hz

2.11 Nyquist analyzed the theoretical capacity of a noiseless channel; therefore, in that case, the signaling rate is limited solely by channel bandwidth. Shannon addressed the question of what signaling rate can be achieved over a channel with a given bandwidth, a given signal power, and in the presence of noise.

2.12 a. Using Shannon ’s formula: C = 3000 log2 (1+400000) = 56 Kbps

b. Due to the fact there is a distortion level (as well as other potentially detrimental impacts to the rated capacity, the actual maximum will be somewhat degraded from the theoretical maximum. A discussion of these relevant impacts should be included and a qualitative value discussed.

2.13 C = B log2 (1 + SNR)

20 ´ 106 = 3 ´ 106 ´ log2(1 + SNR)

log2(1 + SNR) = 6.67

1 + SNR = 102

SNR = 101

2.14 From Equation 2.1, we have LdB = 20 log (4pd/l) = 20 log (4pdf/v), where lf = v (see Question 2.4). If we double either d or f, we add a term 20 log(2), which is approximately 6 dB.

2.15

Decibels	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
Losses	0.8	0.63	0.5	0.4	0.32	0.25	0.2	0.16	0.125	0.1
Gains	1.25	1.6	2	2.5	3.2	4.0	5.0	6.3	8.0	10

2.16 For a voltage ratio, we have

NdB = 30 = 20 log(V2/V1)

V2/V1 = 1030/20 = 101.5 = 31.6

2.17 Power (dBW) = 10 log (Power/1W) = 10 log20 = 13 dBW

Chapter 3

Communication Networks

Answers to Questions

3.1 Wide area networks (WANs) are used to connect stations over very large areas that may even be worldwide while local area networks (LANs) connect stations within a single building or cluster of buildings. Ordinarily, the network assets supporting a LAN belong to the organization using the LAN. For WANs, network assets of service providers are often used. LANs also generally support higher data rates than WANs.

3.2 It is advantageous to have more than one possible path through a network for each pair of stations to enhance reliability in case a particular path fails.

3.3 Telephone communications.

3.4 Static routing involves the use of a predefined route between any two end points, with possible backup routes to handle overflow. In alternate routing, multiple routes are defined between two end points and the choice can depend on time of day and traffic conditions.

3.5 This is a connection to another user set up by prior arrangement, and not requiring a call establishment protocol. It is equivalent to a leased line.

3.6 I n the datagram approach, each packet is treated independently, with no reference to packets that have gone before. In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned route is established before any packets are sent. Once the route is established, all the packets between a pair of communicating parties follow this same route through the network.

3.7 It is not efficient to use a circuit switched network for data since much of the time a typical terminal‑to‑host data communication line will be idle. Secondly, the connections provide for transactions at a constant data rate, which limits the utility of the network in interconnecting a variety of host computers and terminals.

3.8 A virtual channel is a logical connection similar to virtual circuit in X.25 or a logical channel in frame relay. In ATM, virtual channels that have the same endpoints can be grouped into virtual paths. All the circuits in virtual paths are switched together; this offers increased efficiency, architectural simplicity, and the ability to offer enhanced network services.

Answers to Problems

3.1 a. Circuit Switching

T = C1 + C2 where

C1 = Call Setup Time

C2 = Message Delivery Time

C1 = S = 0.2

C2 = Propagation Delay + Transmission Time

= N ´ D + L/B

= 4 ´ 0.001 + 3200/9600 = 0.337

T = 0.2 + 0.337 = 0.537 sec

Datagram Packet Switching

T = D1 + D2 + D3 + D4 where

D1 = Time to Transmit and Deliver all packets through first hop

D2 = Time to Deliver last packet across second hop

D3 = Time to Deliver last packet across third hop

D4 = Time to Deliver last packet across forth hop

There are P – H = 1024 – 16 = 1008 data bits per packet. A message of 3200 bits requires four packets (3200 bits/1008 bits/packet = 3.17 packets which we round up to 4 packets).

D1 = 4 ´ t + p where

t = transmission time for one packet

p = propagation delay for one hop

D1 = 4 ´ (P/B) + D

= 4 ´ (1024/9600) + 0.001

= 0.428

D2 = D3 = D4 = t + p

= (P/B) + D

= (1024/9600) + 0.001 = 0.108

T = 0.428 + 0.108 + 0.108 + 0.108

= 0.752 sec

Virtual Circuit Packet Switching

T = V1 + V2 where

V1 = Call Setup Time

V2 = Datagram Packet Switching Time

T = S + 0.752 = 0.2 + 0.752 = 0.952 sec

b. Circuit Switching vs. Diagram Packet Switching

Tc = End-to-End Delay, Circuit Switching

Tc = S + N ´ D + L/B

Td = End-to-End Delay, Datagram Packet Switching

Np = Number of packets =

Td = D1 + (N – 1)D2

D1 = Time to Transmit and Deliver all packets through first hop

D2 = Time to Deliver last packet through a hop

D1 = Np(P/B) + D

D2 = P/B + D

T = (Np + N – 1)(P/B) + N x D

T = Td

S + L/B = (Np + N – 1)(P/B)

Circuit Switching vs. Virtual Circuit Packet Switching

TV = End-to-End Delay, Virtual Circuit Packet Switching

TV = S + Td

TC = TV

L/B = (Np + N – 1)(P/B)

Datagram vs. Virtual Circuit Packet Switching

Td = TV – S

3.2 From Problem 3.1, we have

Td= (Np + N – 1)(P/B) + N ´ D

For maximum efficiency, we assume that Np = L/(P – H) is an integer. Also, it is assumed that D = 0. Thus

Td = (L/(P – H) + N – 1)(P/B)

To minimize as a function of P, take the derivative:

0 = dTd/(dP)

0 = (1/B)(L/(P – H) + N – 1) - (P/B)L/(P – H)2

0 = L(P – H) + (N – 1) (P – H)2 - LP

0 = –LH + (N – 1)(P – H)2

(P - H)2 = LH/(N – 1)

P = H +

3.3 Each telephone makes 0.5 calls/hour at 6 minutes each. Thus a telephone occupies a circuit for 3 minutes per hour. Twenty telephones can share a circuit (although this 100% utilization implies long queuing delays). Since 10% of the calls are long distance, it takes 200 telephones to occupy a long distance (4 kHz) channel full time. The interoffice trunk has 106/(4 ´ 103) = 250 channels. With 200 telephones per channel, an end office can support 200 ´ 250 = 50,000 telephones.

3.4 The argument ignores the overhead of the initial circuit setup and the circuit teardown.

3.5 Yes. A large noise burst could create an undetected error in the packet. If such an error occurs and alters a destination address field or virtual circuit identifier field, the packet would be misdelivered.

3.6 The number of hops is one less than the number of nodes visited.

a. The fixed number of hops is 2.

b. The furthest distance from a station is halfway around the loop. On average, a station will send data half this distance. For an N-node network, the average number of hops is (N/4) – 1.

c. 1.

3.7 a. We reason as follows. A total of X octets are to be transmitted. This will require a total of cells. Each cell consists of (L + H) octets, where L is the number of data field octets and H is the number of header octets. Thus

The efficiency is optimal for all values of X which are integer multiples of the cell information size. In the optimal case, the efficiency becomes

For the case of ATM, with L = 48 and H = 5, we have Nopt = 0.91

b. Assume that the entire X octets to be transmitted can fit into a single variable-length cell. Then

N for fixed-sized cells has a sawtooth shape. For long messages, the optimal achievable efficiency is approached. It is only for very short cells that efficiency is rather low. For variable-length cells, efficiency can be quite high, approaching 100% for large X. However, it does not provide significant gains over fixed-length cells for most values of X.

3.8 a. As we have already seen in Problem 3.7:

A data field of 48 octets, which is what is used in ATM, seems to provide a reasonably good tradeoff between the requirements of low delay and high efficiency.

3.9 a. The transmission time for one cell through one switch is t = (53 ´ 8)/(43 ´ 10⁶) = 9.86ms.

b. The maximum time from when a typical video cell arrives at the first switch (and possibly waits) until it is finished being transmitted by the 5th and last one is 2 ´ 5 ´ 9.86ms = 98.6ms.

c. The average time from the input of the first switch to clearing the fifth is (5 + 0.6 ´ 5 ´ 0.5) ´ 9.86ms = 64.09ms.

d. The transmission time is always incurred so the jitter is due only to the waiting for switches to clear. In the first case the maximum jitter is 49.3ms. In the second case the average jitter is 64.09 – 49.3 = 14.79ms.

Chapter 4

Protocols and the TCP/IP Suite

Answers to Questions

4.1 The network access layer is concerned with the exchange of data between a computer and the network to which it is attached.

4.2 The transport layer is concerned with data reliability and correct sequencing.

4.3 A protocol is the set of rules or conventions governing the way in which two entities cooperate to exchange data.

4.4 A PDU is the combination of data from the next higher communications layer and control information.

4.5 The software structure that implements the communications function. Typically, the protocol architecture consists of a layered set of protocols, with one or more protocols at each layer.

4.6 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) are two protocols originally designed to provide low level support for internetworking. The term is also used generically to refer to a more comprehensive collection of protocols developed by the U.S. Department of Defense and the Internet community.

4.7 Layering decomposes the overall communications problem into a number of more manageable subproblems.

4.8 A router is a device that operates at the Network layer of the OSI model to connect dissimilar networks.

Answers to Problems

4.1 The guest effectively places the order with the cook. The host communicates this order to the clerk, who places the order with the cook. The phone system provides the physical means for the order to be transported from host to clerk. The cook gives the pizza to the clerk with the order form (acting as a "header" to the pizza). The clerk boxes the pizza with the delivery address, and the delivery van encloses all of the orders to be delivered. The road provides the physical path for delivery.

4.2 a.

The PMs speak as if they are speaking directly to each other. For example, when the French PM speaks, he addresses his remarks directly to the Chinese PM. However, the message is actually passed through two translators via the phone system. The French PM's translator translates his remarks into English and telephones these to the Chinese PM's translator, who translates these remarks into Chinese.

An intermediate node serves to translate the message before passing it on.

4.3 Perhaps the major disadvantage is the processing and data overhead. There is processing overhead because as many as seven modules (OSI model) are invoked to move data from the application through the communications software. There is data overhead because of the appending of multiple headers to the data. Another possible disadvantage is that there must be at least one protocol standard per layer. With so many layers, it takes a long time to develop and promulgate the standards.

4.4 No. There is no way to be assured that the last message gets through, except by acknowledging it. Thus, either the acknowledgment process continues forever, or one army has to send the last message and then act with uncertainty.

4.5 A case could be made either way. First, look at the functions performed at the network layer to deal with the communications network (hiding the details from the upper layers). The network layer is responsible for routing data through the network, but with a broadcast network, routing is not needed. Other functions, such as sequencing, flow control, error control between end systems, can be accomplished at layer 2, because the link layer will be a protocol directly between the two end systems, with no intervening switches. So it would seem that a network layer is not needed. Second, consider the network layer from the point of view of the upper layer using it. The upper layer sees itself attached to an access point into a network supporting communication with multiple devices. The layer for assuring that data sent across a network is delivered to one of a number of other end systems is the network layer. This argues for inclusion of a network layer.

In fact, the OSI layer 2 is split into two sublayers. The lower sublayer is concerned with medium access control (MAC), assuring that only one end system at a time transmits; the MAC sublayer is also responsible for addressing other end systems across the LAN. The upper sublayer is called Logical Link Control (LLC). LLC performs traditional link control functions. With the MAC/LLC combination, no network layer is needed (but an internet layer may be needed).

4.6 The internet protocol can be defined as a separate layer. The functions performed by IP are clearly distinct from those performed at a network layer and those performed at a transport layer, so this would make good sense.

The session and transport layer both are involved in providing an end-to-end service to the OSI user, and could easily be combined. This has been done in TCP/IP, which provides a direct application interface to TCP.

4.7 a. No. This would violate the principle of separation of layers. To layer (N – 1), the N-level PDU is simply data. The (N – 1) entity does not know about the internal format of the N-level PDU. It breaks that PDU into fragments and reassembles them in the proper order.

b. Each N-level PDU must retain its own header, for the same reason given in (a).

4.8 Data plus transport header plus internet header equals 1820 bits. This data is delivered in a sequence of packets, each of which contains 24 bits of network header and up to 776 bits of higher-layer headers and/or data. Three network packets are needed. Total bits delivered = 1820 + 3 ´ 24 = 1892 bits.

4.9 UDP provides the source and destination port addresses and a checksum that covers the data field. These functions would not normally be performed by protocols above the transport layer. Thus UDP provides a useful, though limited, service.

4.10 I n the case of IP and UDP, these are unreliable protocols that do not guarantee delivery, so they do not notify the source. TCP does guarantee delivery. However, the technique that is used is a timeout. If the source does not receive an acknowledgment to data within a given period of time, the source retransmits.

4.11 UDP has a fixed-sized header. The header in TCP is of variable length.

Chapter 5

Antennas and Propagation

Answers to Questions

5.1 The two functions of an antenna are: (1) For transmission of a signal, radio-frequency electrical energy from the transmitter is converted into electromagnetic energy by the antenna and radiated into the surrounding environment (atmosphere, space, water); (2) for reception of a signal, electromagnetic energy impinging on the antenna is converted into radio-frequency electrical energy and fed into the receiver.

5.2 An isotropic antenna is a point in space that radiates power in all directions equally.

5.3 A radiation pattern is a graphical representation of the radiation properties of an antenna as a function of space coordinates.

5.4 A parabolic antenna creates, in theory, a parallel beam without dispersion. In practice, there will be some beam spread. Nevertheless, it produces a highly focused, directional beam.

5.5 Effective area and wavelength.

5.6 Free space loss.

5.7 Thermal noise is due to thermal agitation of electrons. Intermodulation noise produces signals at a frequency that is the sum or difference of the two original frequencies or multiples of those frequencies. Crosstalk is the unwanted coupling between signal paths. Impulse noise is noncontinuous, consisting of irregular pulses or noise spikes of short duration and of relatively high amplitude.

5.8 Refraction is the bending of a radio beam caused by changes in the speed of propagation at a point of change in the medium.

5.9 The term fading refers to the time variation of received signal power caused by changes in the transmission medium or path(s).

5.10 Diffraction occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large compared to the wavelength of the radio wave. The edge in effect become a source and waves radiate in different directions from the edge, allowing a beam to bend around an obstacle. If the size of an obstacle is on the order of the wavelength of the signal or less, scattering occurs. An incoming signal is scattered into several weaker outgoing signals in unpredictable directions.

5.11 Fast fading refers to changes in signal strength between a transmitter and receiver as the distance between the two changes by a small distance of about one-half a wavelength. Slow fading refers to changes in signal strength between a transmitter and receiver as the distance between the two changes by a larger distance, well in excess of a wavelength.

5.12 Flat fading, or nonselective fading, is that type of fading in which all frequency components of the received signal fluctuate in the same proportions simultaneously. Selective fading affects unequally the different spectral components of a radio signal.

5.13 Space diversity involves the physical transmission path and typical refers to the use of multiple transmitting or receiving antennas. With frequency diversity, the signal is spread out over a larger frequency bandwidth or carried on multiple frequency carriers. Time diversity techniques aim to spread the data out over time so that a noise burst affects fewer bits.

Answers to Problems

5.1

Distance (km)	Radio (dB)	Wire (dB)
1	–6	–3
2	–12	–6
4	–18	–12
8	–24	–24
16	–30	–48

5.2 The length of a half-wave dipole is one-half the wavelength of the signal that can be transmitted most efficiently. Therefore, the optimum wavelength in this case is l = 20 m . The optimum free space frequency is f = c/l = (3 ´ 108)/20 = 15 MHz.

5.3 We have lf = c; in this case l ´ 30 = 3 ´ 10 8 m /sec, which yields a wavelength of 10,000 km . Half of that is 5,000 km which is comparable to the east-to-west dimension of the continental U.S. While an antenna this size is impractical, the U.S. Defense Department has considered using large parts of Wisconsin and Michigan to make an antenna many kilometers in diameter.

5.4 a. Using lf = c, we have l = (3 ´ 10 8 m /sec)/(300 Hz) = 1,000 km , so that

l/2 = 500 km .

b. The carrier frequency corresponding to l/2 = 1 m is given by:

f = c/l = (3 ´ 10 8 m /sec)/( 2 m ) = 150 MHz.

5.5 l = 2 ´ 2.5 ´ 10– 3 m = 5 ´ 10– 3 m

f = c/l = (3 ´ 10 8 m /sec)/( 5 ´ 10 -3 m ) = 6 ´ 1010 Hz = 60 GHz

5.6 a. First, take the derivative of both sides of the equation y2 = 2px:

Therefore tan b = (p/y1).

b. The slope of PF is (y1 – 0)/(x1 – (p/2)). Therefore:

Because , this simplifies to tan a = (p/y1).

5.7

Antenna	l = 30 cm		l = 3 mm
Antenna	Effective area (m2)	Gain	Effective area (m2)	Gain
Isotropic	0.007	1	7.2 ´ 10–7	1
Infinitesimal dipole or loop	0.011	1.5	1.1 ´ 10–6	1.5
Half-wave dipole	0.012	1.64	1.2 ´ 10–6	1.64
Horn	2.54	349	2.54	3.5 ´ 106
Parabolic	1.76	244	1.76	2.4 ´ 106
Turnstile	0.008	1.15	8.2 ´ 10–7	1.15

5.8 LdB = 20 log(fMHz) + 120 +20 log (dkm) + 60 – 147.56

= 20 log(fMHz) +20 log (dkm) + 32.44

5.9 We have Pr = [(Pt) (Gt) (Gr) (c)2]/(4pfd)2

= [(1) (2) (2) (3 ´ 108)2]/[(16) (p)2 (3 ´ 108)2 (104)2] = 0.76 ´ 10–9 W

Source: [THUR00]

5.10 a. From Appendix 2A , PowerdBW = 10 log (PowerW) = 10 log (50) = 17 dBW

PowerdBm = 10 log (PowermW) = 10 log (50,000) = 47 dBm

b. Using Equation (5.2),

LdB = 20 log(900 ´ 106) +20 log (100) – 147.56 = 120 + 59.08 +40 – 147.56 = 71.52

Therefore, received power in dBm = 47 – 71.52 = –24.52 dBm

c LdB = 120 + 59.08 +80 – 147.56 =111.52; Pr,dBm = 47 – 111.52 = –64.52 dBm

d The antenna gain results in an increase of 3 dB, so that Pr,dBm = –61.52 dBm

Source: [RAPP02]

5.11 a. From Table 5.2, G = 7 A /l2 = 7Af2/c2 = (7´p´(0.6)2´(2´109)2]/(3´108)2 = 351.85

GdB = 25.46 dB

b. 0.1 W x 351.85 = 35.185 W

c. Use LdB = 20 log (4p) + 20 log (d) + 20 log (f) – 20 log (c) – 10 log(Gr) – 10 log (Gt)

LdB = 21.98 + 87.6 + 186.02 – 169.54 – 25.46 – 25.46 = 75.14 dB

The transmitter power, in dBm is 10 log (100) = 20.

The available received signal power is 20 – 75.14 = –55.14 dBm

5.12 From Equation 2.2, the ratio of transmitted power to received power is

Pt/Pr = (4pd/l)2

If we double the frequency, we halve l, or if we double the distance, we double d, so the new ratio for either of these events is:

Pt/Pr2 = (8pd/l)2

Therefore:

10 log (Pr/Pr2) = 10 log (22) = 6 dB

5.13

By the Pythagorean theorem: d2 + r2 = (r + h)2

Or, d2 = 2rh + h2. The h2 term is negligible with respect to 2rh, so we use d2 = 2rh.

Then,

5.14 For radio line of sight, we use , with K = 4/3, we have

802 = (3.57)2 ´ 1.33 ´ h. Solving for h, we get h = 378 m .

5.15 N = –228.6 dBW + 10 log T + 10 log B

We have T = 273.15 + 50 = 323.15 K, and B = 10,000

N = –228.6 dBW + 25.09 +40 = –163.51 dBW

Converting to watts, NW = 10N/10 = 4 ´ 10–17 W

5.16 a. Output waveform:

sin ( 2 p f1t) + 1/3 sin (2p( 3f 1)t) + 1/5 sin (2p( 5f 1)t) + 1/7 sin (2p ( 7f 1)t)

where f1 = 1/T = 1 kHz

Output power = 1/2 (1 + 1/9 + 1/25 + 1/49) = 0.586 watt

b. Output noise power = 8 kHz ´ 0.1 mWatt/Hz = 0.8 mWatt

SNR = 0.586/0.0008 = 732.5 (SNR)dB = 28.65

5.17 (Eb/N0) = –151 dBW – 10 log 2400 – 10 log 1500 + 228.6 dBW = 12 dBW

Source: [FREE 98a ]

5.18 Let RI = refractive index, a = angle of incidence, b = angle of refraction

(sin a)/sin b) = RIair/RIwater = 1.0003/(4/3) = 0.75

sin b = 0.5/0.75 = 0.66; b = 41.8°

Chapter 6

Signal Encoding Techniques

Answers to Questions

6.1 I n differential encoding, the signal is decoded by comparing the polarity of adjacent signal elements rather than determining the absolute value of a signal element.

6.2 A modem converts digital information into an analog signal, and conversely.

6.3 Cost, capacity utilization, and security and privacy are three major advantages enjoyed by digital transmission over analog transmission.

6.4 With amplitude‑shift keying, binary values are represented by two different amplitudes of carrier frequencies. This approach is susceptible to sudden gain changes and is rather inefficient.

6.5 Non return‑to‑zero‑level (NRZ‑L) is a data encoding scheme in which a negative voltage is used to represent binary one and a positive voltage is used to represent binary zero. A disadvantage of NRZ transmission is that it is difficult to determine where one bit ends and the next bit begins.

6.6 The difference is that offset QPSK introduces a delay of one bit time in the Q stream

6.7 QAM takes advantage of the fact that it is possible to send two different signals simultaneously on the same carrier frequency, by using two copies of the carrier frequency, one shifted by 90˚ with respect to the other. For QAM, each carrier is ASK modulated.

6.8 The sampling rate must be higher than twice the highest signal frequency.

6.9 Frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM) are special cases of angle modulation. For PM, the phase is proportional to the modulating signal. For FM, the derivative of the phase is proportional to the modulating signal.

Answers to Problems

6.1 s(t) = d₁(t)cos wct + d2(t)sin wct

Use the following identities: cos2a = 2cos2a – 1; sin2a = 2sina cosa

s(t) coswct = d₁(t)cos2wct + d₂(t)sinwct coswct

= (1/2)d1(t) + (1/2)d1(t) cos2wct + (1/2)d2(t) sin2wct

Use the following identities: cos2a = 1 – 2 sin²a; sin2a = 2sina cosa

s(t) sinwct = d₁(t) coswct sinw_ct + d2(t)sin2w_ct

= (1/2)d1(t) sin2wct + (1/2)d2(t) - (1/2)d2(t) cos2wct

All terms at 2wc are filtered out by the low-pass filter, yielding:

y1(t) = (1/2)d1(t); y2(t) = (1/2)d2(t)

6.2 Ts = signal element period; Tb = bit period; A = amplitude = 0.005

a. Ts = Tb = 10-5 sec

6.3 Each signal element conveys two bits. First consider NRZ-L. It should be clear that in this case, D = R/2. For the remaining codes, one must first determine the average number of pulses per bit. For example, for Biphase-M, there is an average of 1.5 pulses per bit. We have pulse rate of P, which yields a data rate of

R = P/1.5

D = P/2 = (1.5 x R)/2 = 0.75 ´ R

6.4 Eb/N0 = (S/N) (B/R)

S/N = (R/B) (Eb/N0) = 1 ´ (Eb/N0)

(S/N)dB = (Eb/N0)dB

For FSK and ASK, from Figure 4.10, (Eb/N0)dB = 13.5 dB

(S/N)dB = 13.5 dB

For PSK, from Figure 4.10, (Eb/N0)dB = 10.5

(S/N)dB = 10.5 dB

For QPSK, the effective bandwidth is halved, so that

(R/B) = 2

(R/B)dB = 3

(S/N)dB = 3 + 10.5 = 13.5 dB

6.5 For ASK, BT = (1 + r)R = (1.5)2400 = 3600 Hz

For FSK, BT = 2 D F + (1 + r)R = 2(2.5 x 103) + (1.5)2400 = 8600 Hz

6.6 For multilevel signaling BT = [(1 + r)/log 2 L ]R

For 2400 bps QPSK, log 2 L = log24 = 2

BT = (2/2)2400 = 2400 Hz, which just fits the available bandwidth

For 8-level 4800 bps signaling, log 2 L = log28 = 3

BT = (2/3)(4800) = 3200 Hz, which exceeds the available bandwidth

6.7 As was mentioned in the text, analog signals in the voice band that represent digital data have more high frequency components than analog voice signals. These higher components cause the signal to change more rapidly over time. Hence, DM will suffer from a high level of slope overload noise. PCM, on the other hand, does not estimate changes in signals, but rather the absolute value of the signal, and is less affected than DM.

6.8 No. The demodulator portion of a modem expects to receive a very specific type of waveform (e.g., ASK) and would not produce meaningful output with voice input. Thus, it would not function as the coder portion of a codec. The case against using a codec in place of a modem is less easily explained, but the following intuitive argument is offered. If the decoder portion of a codec is used in place of the modulator portion of a modem, it must accept an arbitrary bit pattern, interpret groups of bits as a sample, and produce an analog output. Some very wide value swings are to be expected, resulting in a strange-looking waveform. Given the effects of noise and attenuation, the digital output produced at the receiving end by the coder portion of the codec will probably contain many errors.

6.9 From the text, (SNR)db = 6.02 n + 1.76, where n is the number of bits used for quantization. In this case, (SNR)db = 60.2 + 1.76 = 61.96 dB.

6.10 a. (SNR)db = 6.02 n + 1.76 = 30 dB

n = (30 – 1.76)/6.02 = 4.69

Rounded off, n = 5 bits

This yields 25 = 32 quantization levels

b. R = 7000 samples/s ´ 5 bits/sample = 35 Kbps

6.11 The maximum slope that can be generated by a DM system is

d/Ts = d fs

where Ts = period of sampling; fs = frequency of sampling

Consider that the maximum frequency component of the signal is

w(t) = A sin2pfat

The slope of this component is

dw(t)/dt = A2 p fa cos2 p fa t

and the maximum slope is A2 p fa. To avoid slope overload, we require that

d fs > A2 p fa

Source: [COUC01]

6.12 a. A total of 28 quantization levels are possible, so the normalized step size is 2–8 = 0.003906.

b. The actual step size, in volts, is:

0.003906 ´ 10V = 0.03906V

c. The maximum normalized quantized voltage is 1 - 2 -8 = 0.9961. Thus the actual maximum quantized voltage is:

0.9961 ´ 10V = 9.961V

d. The normalized step size is 2–8. The maximum error that can occur is one-half the step size. Therefore, the normalized resolution is:

+ 1/2 ´ 2–8 = 0.001953

e. The actual resolution is

+ 0.001953 ´ 10V = + 0.01953V

f. The percentage resolution is

+ 0.001953 ´ 100% = + 0.1953 %

6.13

6.14 s(t) = Ac cos[2pfct + f(t)] = 10 cos [(108)pt + 5 sin 2p(103)t]

Therefore, f(t) = 5 sin 2p(103)t, and the maximum phase deviation is 5 radians. For frequency deviation, recognize that the change in frequency is determined by the derivative of the phase:

f'(t) = 5 (2p) (103) cos 2p(103)t

which yields a frequency deviation of Df = (1/2p)[ 5 (2p) (103)] = 5 kHz

6.15 a. s(t) = Ac cos[2pfct + npm(t)] = 10 cos [2π(106)t + 0.1 sin (103)pt]

Ac = 10; fc = 106

10 m (t) = 0.1 sin (103)pt, so m(t) = 0.01 sin (103)pt

b. s(t) = Ac cos[2pfct + f(t)] = 10 cos [2π(106)t + 0.1 sin (103)pt]

Ac = 10; fc = 106

f(t) = 0.1 sin (103)pt, so f'(t) = 100p cos (103)pt = nfm(t) = 10 m (t)

Therefore m(t) = 10p cos (103)pt

6.16 a. For AM, s(t) = [1 + m(t)] cos(2pfct)

s1(t) = [1 + m1(t)] cos(2pfct); s2(t) = [1 + m2(t)] cos(2pfct)

For the combined signal mc(t) = m1(t) + m2(t),

sc(t) = [1 + m1(t) + m2(t)] cos(2pfct) = s1(t) + s2(t) – 1, which is a linear combination of s1(t) and s2(t).

b. For PM, s(t) = A cos(2pfct + npm(t))

s1(t) = A cos(2pfct + npm1(t)); s2(t) = A cos(2pfct + npm2(t))

For the combined signal mc(t) = m1(t) + m2(t),

sc(t) = A cos(2pfct + np[m1(t) + m2(t)]), which is not a linear combination of s1(t) and s2(t).

Chapter 7

Spread Spectrum

Answers to Questions

7.1 The bandwidth is wider after the signal has been encoded using spread spectrum.

7.2 (1) We can gain immunity from various kinds of noise and multipath distortion. (2) It can also be used for hiding and encrypting signals. Only a recipient who knows the spreading code can recover the encoded information. (3) Several users can independently use the same higher bandwidth with very little interference, using code division multiple access (CDMA).

7.3 With frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), the signal is broadcast over a seemingly random series of radio frequencies, hopping from frequency to frequency at fixed intervals. A receiver, hopping between frequencies in synchronization with the transmitter, picks up the message.

7.4 Slow FHSS = multiple signal elements per hop; fast FHSS = multiple hops per signal element.

7.5 With direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), each bit in the original signal is represented by multiple bits in the transmitted signal, using a spreading code.

7.6 For an N-bit spreading code, the bit rate after spreading (usually called the chip rate) is N times the original bit rate.

7.7 CDMA allows multiple users to transmit over the same wireless channel using spread spectrum. Each user uses a different spreading code. The receiver picks out one signal by matching the spreading code.

7.8 Autocorrelation, which is defined in Equation 7.10, is the correlation or comparison of a sequence with all phase shifts of itself. Cross-correlation, which is defined in Equation 7.11, is the comparison is made between two sequences from different sources rather than a shifted copy of a sequence with itself.

Answers to Problems

7.1 a. We have C = B log2 (1 + SNR). For SNR = 0.1, C = 0.41 MHz; For SNR = 0.01, C = 3.9 MHz; for SNR = 0.001, C = 38.84 MHz. Thus, to achieve the desired SNR, the signal must be spread so that 56 KHz is carried in very large bandwidths.

b. For 1 bps/Hz, the equation C = B log2 (1 + SNR) becomes log2 (1 + SNR) = 1. Solving for SNR, we have SNR = 1. Thus a far higher SNR is required without spread spectrum.

7.2 The total number of tones, or individual channels is:

Ws/fd = (400 MHz)/(100 Hz) = 4 ´ 106.

The minimum number of PN bits = élog2 (4 ´ 106)ù = 22

where éxù indicates the smallest integer value not less than x. Source: [SKLA01]

7.3 Ws = 1000 fd; Wd = 4 fd; Using Equation 7.3 , Gp = Ws/Wd = 250 = 24 dB

7.4 a. Period of the PN sequence is 24 – 1 = 15

b. MFSK

c. L = 2

d. M = 2 L = 4

e. k = 3

f. slow FHSS

g. 2k = 8

Time	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
Input data	0	1	1	1	1	1	1	0	0	0	1	0
Frequency	f1		f3		f3		f2		f0		f2

Time	12	13	14	15	16	17	18	19
Input data	0	1	1	1	1	0	1	0
Frequency	f1		f3		f2		f2

7.5 a. Period of the PN sequence is 24 – 1 = 15

b. MFSK

c. L = 2

d. M = 2 L = 4

e. k = 3

f. fast FHSS

g. 2k = 8

h. Same as for Problem 7.4

7.6 a. This is from the example 6.1.

f1 = 75 kHz 000 f2 =125 kHz 001 f3 = 175 kHz 010 f4 = 225 kHz 011 f5 = 275 kHz 100 f6 = 325 kHz 101 f7 = 375 kHz 110 f8 = 425 kHz 111

b. We need three more sets of 8 frequencies. The second set can start at 475 kHz, with 8 frequencies separated by 50 kHz each. The third set can start at 875 kHz, and the fourth set at 1275 kHz.

7.7 a. C0 = 1110010; C1 = 0111001; C2 = 1011100; C3 = 0101110; C4 = 0010111;

C5 = 1001011; C6 = 1100101

b. C1 output = –7; bit value = 0

c. C2 output = +9; bit value = 1

7.8 It is –1 for each of the other 6 channels.

7.9 Let us start with an initial seed of 1. The first generator yields the sequence:

1, 6, 10, 8, 9, 2, 12, 7, 3, 5, 4, 11, 1, . . .

The second generator yields the sequence:

1, 7, 10, 5, 9, 11, 12, 6, 3, 8, 4, 2, 1, . . .

Because of the patterns evident in the second half of the latter sequence, most people would consider it to be less random than the first sequence.

7.10 When m = 2k, the right-hand digits of Xn are much less random than the left-hand digits. See [KNUT98], page 13 for a discussion.

7.11 Many packages make use of a linear congruential generator with m = 2k. As discussed in the answer to Problem 10, this leads to results in which the right-hand digits are much less random than the left-hand digits. Now, if we use a linear congruential generator of the following form:

Xn+1 = (aXn + c) mod m

then it is easy to see that the scheme will generate all even integers, all odd integers, or will alternate between even and odd integers, depending on the choice for a and c. Often, a and c are chosen to create a sequence of alternating even and odd integers. This has a tremendous impact on the simulation used for calculating π. The simulation depends on counting the number of pairs of integers whose greatest common divisor is 1. With truly random integers, one-fourth of the pairs should consist of two even integers, which of course have a gcd greater than 1. This never occurs with sequences that alternate between even and odd integers. To get the correct value of π using Cesaro's method, the number of pairs with a gcd of 1 should be approximately 60.8%. When pairs are used where one number is odd and the other even, this percentage comes out too high, around 80%, thus leading to the too small value of π. For a further discussion, see Danilowicz, R. "Demonstrating the Dangers of Pseudo-Random Numbers," SIGCSE Bulletin, June 1989.

7.12 a.

State	B4	B3	B2	B1	B0	B0 Å B3	output
0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0
1	0	1	0	0	0	1	0
2	1	0	1	0	0	0	0
3	0	1	0	1	0	1	0
4	1	0	1	0	1	1	1
5	1	1	0	1	0	1	0
6	1	1	1	0	1	0	1
7	0	1	1	1	0	1	0
8	1	0	1	1	1	1	1
9	1	1	0	1	1	0	1
10	0	1	1	0	1	0	1
11	0	0	1	1	0	0	0
12	0	0	0	1	1	1	1
13	1	0	0	0	1	1	1
14	1	1	0	0	0	1	0
15	1	1	1	0	0	1	0
16	1	1	1	1	0	1	0
17	1	1	1	1	1	0	1
18	0	1	1	1	1	0	1
19	0	0	1	1	1	1	1
20	1	0	0	1	1	1	1
21	1	1	0	0	1	0	1
22	0	1	1	0	0	1	0
23	1	0	1	1	0	0	0
24	0	1	0	1	1	0	1
25	0	0	1	0	1	1	1
26	1	0	0	1	0	0	0
27	0	1	0	0	1	0	1
28	0	0	1	0	0	0	0
29	0	0	0	1	0	0	0
30	0	0	0	0	1	1	1
31=0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0

State	B4	B3	B2	B1	B0	B0 Å B1 Å B3 Å B4	output
0	1	0	0	0	0	1	0
1	1	1	0	0	0	0	0
2	0	1	1	0	0	1	0
3	1	0	1	1	0	0	0
4	0	1	0	1	1	1	1
5	1	0	1	0	1	0	1
6	0	1	0	1	0	0	0
7	0	0	1	0	1	1	1
8	1	0	0	1	0	0	0
9	0	1	0	0	1	0	1
10	0	0	1	0	0	0	0
11	0	0	0	1	0	1	0
12	1	0	0	0	1	0	1
13	0	1	0	0	0	1	0
14	1	0	1	0	0	1	0
15	1	1	0	1	0	1	0
16	1	1	1	0	1	1	1
17	1	1	1	1	0	1	0
18	1	1	1	1	1	0	1
19	0	1	1	1	1	1	1
20	1	0	1	1	1	1	1
21	1	1	0	1	1	0	1
22	0	1	1	0	1	0	1
23	0	0	1	1	0	1	0
24	1	0	0	1	1	1	1
25	1	1	0	0	1	1	1
26	1	1	1	0	0	0	0
27	0	1	1	1	0	0	0
28	0	0	1	1	1	0	1
29	0	0	0	1	1	0	1
30	0	0	0	0	1	1	1
31=0	1	0	0	0	0	1	0

7.13 Recall that to compute the cross-correlation, we replace 1 with +1 and 0 with –1. The 8-bit Walsh codes are:

–1	–1	–1	–1	–1	–1	–1	–1
–1	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1
–1	–1	1	1	–1	–1	1	1
–1	1	1	–1	–1	1	1	–1
–1	–1	–1	–1	1	1	1	1
–1	1	–1	1	1	–1	1	–1
–1	–1	1	1	1	1	–1	–1
–1	1	1	–1	1	–1	–1	1

It is easily seen that a bitwise multiplication of any two rows produces 0. For example, row 3 multiplied by row 4 equals 1 + (–1) + 1 + (–1) + 1 + (–1) + 1 + (–1) = 0.

7.14 a. 8

b. –8

A output (data = 1)	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1
B output (data = 1)	–1	–1	1	1	–1	–1	1	1
Received	–2	0	0	2	–2	0	0	2
Receiver codeword	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1
Multiplication	2	0	0	2	2	0	0	2	=8

A output (data = 0)	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1
B output (data = 1)	–1	–1	1	1	–1	–1	1	1
Received	0	–2	2	0	0	–2	2	0
Receiver codeword	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1
Multiplication	0	–2	–2	0	0	–2	–2	0	=–8

A output (data = 1)	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1
B output (data = 0)	1	1	–1	–1	1	1	–1	–1
Received	0	2	–2	0	0	2	–2	0
Receiver codeword	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1
Multiplication	0	2	2	0	0	2	2	0	=8

A output (data = 0)	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1
B output (data = 0)	1	1	–1	–1	1	1	–1	–1
Received	2	0	0	–2	2	0	0	–2
Receiver codeword	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1
Multiplication	–2	0	0	–2	–2	0	0	–2	=–8

A output (data = 1)	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1
B output (data = 1)	–2	–2	2	2	–2	–2	2	2
Received	–3	–1	1	3	–3	–1	1	3
Receiver codeword	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1
Multiplication	3	–1	–1	3	3	–1	–1	3	=8

A output (data = 0)	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1
B output (data = 1)	–2	–2	2	2	–2	–2	2	2
Received	–1	–2	2	1	–1	–3	3	–1
Receiver codeword	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1	–1	1
Multiplication	1	–2	–2	1	1	–3	–3	–1	=–8

Source: [WEBB00]

Chapter 8

Coding and Error Control

Answers to Questions

8.1 A parity bit appended to an array of binary digits to make the sum of all the binary digits, including the parity bit, always odd (odd parity) or always even (even parity).

8.2 The CRC is an error detecting code in which the code is the remainder resulting from dividing the bits to be checked by a predetermined binary number.

8.3 The CRC has more bits and therefore provides more redundancy. That is, it provides more information that can be used to detect errors.

8.4 Modulo 2 arithmetic, polynomials, and digital logic.

8.5 It is possible. You could design a code in which all codewords are at least a distance of 3 from all other codewords, allowing all single-bit errors to be corrected. Suppose that some but not all codewords in this code are at least a distance of 5 from all other codewords. Then for those particular codewords, but not the others, a double-bit error could be corrected.

8.6 An (n, k) block code encodes k data bits into n-bit codewords.

8.7 An (n, k, K) code processes input data k bits at a time and produces an output of n bits for each incoming k bits. The current output of n bits is a function of the last K ´ k input bits.

8.8 A trellis is a diagram that shows the state transitions over time in a convolutional code.

8.9 Detection of errors and retransmission of frames that are received in error.

8.10 Go‑back‑N ARQ is a form of error control in which a destination station sends a negative acknowledgment (NAK) when it receives an error. The source station receiving the NAK will retransmit the frame in error plus all succeeding frames transmitted in the interim.

Answers to Problems

8.1 Any arithmetic scheme will work if applied in exactly the same way to the forward and reverse process. The modulo 2 scheme is easy to implement in circuitry. It also yields a remainder one bit smaller than binary arithmetic.

8.2 a. We have:

Pr [single bit in error] = 10–3

Pr [single bit not in error] = 1 – 10–3 = 0.999

Pr [8 bits not in error] = (1 – 10–3)8 = (0.999)8 = 0.992

Pr [at least one error in frame] = 1 – (1 – 10–3)8 = 0.008

b. Pr [at least one error in frame] = 1 – (1 – 10–3)10 = 1 – (0.999)10 = 0.01

8.3 a.

Shift	Shift Register																Input
	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	1		1
2	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	1	0		0
3	0	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0		0
4	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0		0
5	0	0	0	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	1		0
6	0	0	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	1	0		0
7	0	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	1	0	0		0
8	1	0	0	1	0	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	0		0
9	0	0	1	1	0	0	1	1	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	1		0
10	0	1	1	0	0	1	1	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	1	0		0
11	1	1	0	0	1	1	0	0	1	1	0	0	0	1	0	0		0
12	1	0	0	0	1	0	0	1	1	0	1	0	1	0	0	1		0
13	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	0	1	1	1	0	0	1	1		0
14	0	0	0	0	0	1	1	0	1	1	1	0	0	1	1	0		0
15	0	0	0	0	1	1	0	1	1	1	0	0	1	1	0	0		0
16	0	0	0	1	1	0	1	1	1	0	0	1	1	0	0	0		0
	CRC

8.4 At the conclusion of the data transfer, just before the CRC pattern arrives, the shift register should contain the identical CRC result. Now, the bits of the incoming CRC are applied at point C4 (Figure 8.3). Each 1 bit will merge with a 1 bit (exclusive-or) to produce a 0; each 0 bit will merge with a 0 bit to produce a zero.

8.5

8.6 a.

b. Data = 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0

M(X) = 1 + X3 + X4 + X6 + X7 + X8

X 4 M (X) = X12 + X11 + X10 + X8 + X7 + X4

R(X) = X2

T(X) = X 4 M (X) + R(X) = X12 + X11 + X10 + X8 + X7 + X4 + X2

Code = 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0

c. Code = 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0

yields a nonzero remainder

8.7 a. The multiplication of M(X) by X16 corresponds to shifting M(X) 16 places and thus providing the space for a 16-bit FCS. The addition of XkL(X) to X 16 M (X) inverts the first 16 bits of G(X) (one's complements). The addition of L(X) to R(X) inverts all of the bits of R(X).

b. The HDLC standard provides the following explanation. The addition of XKL(X) corresponds to a value of all ones. This addition protects against the obliteration of leading flags, which may be non-detectable if the initial remainder is zero. The addition of L(X) to R(X) ensures that the received, error-free message will result in a unique, non-zero remainder at the receiver. The non-zero remainder protects against the potential non-detectability of the obliteration of trailing flags.

c. The implementation is the same as that shown in Solution 3b, with the following strategy. At both transmitter and receiver, the initial content of the register is preset to all ones. The final remainder, if there are no errors, will be 0001 1101 0000 1111.

8.8 a. For simplicity, we do not show the switches.

C4	C3	C2	C1	C0	C 4 Å C3	C 4 Å C1	C4 Å I	Input
0	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	1
0	0	0	0	1	0	0	0	0
0	0	0	1	0	0	1	1	1
0	0	1	0	1	0	0	0	0
0	1	0	1	0	1	1	0	0
1	0	1	0	0	1	1	1	0
1	1	1	0	1	0	1	0	1
0	1	1	1	0	1	1	1	1
1	1	1	0	1	0	1	1	0
0	1	1	1	1	1	1	1	1
1	1	1	1	1	0	0	1	–
0	1	0	1	1	1	1	0	–
1	0	1	1	0	1	0	1	–
1	1	0	0	1	0	1	1	–
0	0	1	1	1	0	1	0	–
0	1	1	1	0

c. The partial results from the long division show up in the shift register, as indicated by the shaded portions of the preceding table. Compare to long division example in Section 8.1.

d. Five additional steps are required to produce the result.

8.9 a. b.

	00000	10101	01010		000000	010101	101010	110110
00000	0	2	2	000000	0	3	3	4
10101	3	0	5	010101	3	0	6	6
01010	2	5	0	101010	3	6	0	3
				110110	4	6	3	0

8.10 a. p(v|w) = bd(w,v)(1 – b)(n – d(w,v)

b. If we write di = d(wi,v), then

c. If 0 < b < 0.5, then (1 – b)/b > 1. Therefore, by the equation of part b,

p(v|w1)/p(v|w2) > 1 if an only if d1 < d2.

8.11 Suppose that the minimum distance between codewords is at least 2t + 1. For a codeword w to be decoded as another codeword w', the received sequence must be at least as close to w' as to w. For this to happen, at least t + 1 bits of w must be in error. Therefore all errors involving t or fewer digits are correctable.

8.12 C1 = D1 Å D2 Å D4 Å D5 Å D7

C2 = D1 Å D3 Å D4 Å D6 Å D7

C4 = D2 Å D3 Å D4 Å D8

C8 = D5 Å D6 Å D7 Å D8

8.13 The transmitted block and check bit calculation are shown in Table 8.2a and b. Now suppose that the only error is in C8. Then the received block results in the following table:

Position	12	11	10	9	8	7	6	5	4	3	2	1
Bits	D8	D7	D6	D5	C8	D4	D3	D2	C4	D1	C2	C1
Block	0	0	1	1	1	1	0	0	1	1	1	1
Codes			1010	1001		0111				0011

The check bit calculation after reception:

Position	Code
Hamming	1111
10	1010
9	1001
7	0111
3	0011
XOR = syndrome	1000

The nonzero result detects and error and indicates that the error is in bit position 8, which is check bit C8.

8.14 Data bits with value 1 are in bit positions 12, 11, 5, 4, 2, and 1:

Position	12	11	10	9	8	7	6	5	4	3	2	1
Bit	D8	D7	D6	D5	C8	D4	D3	D2	C4	D1	C2	C1
Block	1	1	0	0		0	0	1		0
Codes	1100	1011						0101

Check bit calculation:

Position	Code
12	1100
11	1011
5	0101
XOR = C 8 C 4 C 2 C 1	0010

8.15 The Hamming Word initially calculated was:

bit number:	12	11	10	9	8	7	6	5	4	3	2	1
	0	0	1	1	0	1	0	0	1	1	1	1

Doing an exclusive-OR of 0111 and 1101 yields 1010 indicating an error in bit 10 of the Hamming Word. Thus, the data word read from memory was 00011001.

8.16 Need n – k check bits such that 2(n – k) – 1 ³ 1024 + (n – k).

The minimum value of n – k that satisfies this condition is 11.

8.17 The calculation shows that g(X) divides f(X) with no remainder.

This result is verified by multiplying the quotient by g(X) to get back f(X) exactly:

8.18 a.

S2	S1	S0	S2 Å S1 Å I	S2 Å I	Input
0	0	0	1	1	1
1	0	1	1	1	0
1	1	1	1	0	1
1	1	0	0	1	0
0	0	1

8.19 a. b. c.

1	2	3	4	1	2	3	4	1	2	3	4
5	6	7	8	5	6	7	8	5	6	7	8
9	10	11	12	9	10	11	12	9	10	11	12
13	14	15	16	13	14	15	16	13	14	15	16
17	18	19	20	17	18	19	20	17	18	19	20
21	22	23	24	21	22	23	24	21	22	23	24

d. The first column is filled after 21 bits are read in. Similarly, 21 bits must arrive before deinterleaving. This confirms 2(n(m – 1) + 1) = 2(4(5) +1) = 42.

Source: {SKLA01].

8.20 a.

8.21 a. This clears out the encoder, making it ready for use for the next transmission.

b. The encoder is in state a = 00 before transmission and after transmission of the last information bit two zero bits are transmitted. The sequence of states traversed is abdcbcbdcb. The output sequence is 10 11 10 01 01 01 11 10 01 00

8.22 a. Because only one frame can be sent at a time, and transmission must stop until an acknowledgment is received, there is little effect in increasing the size of the message if the frame size remains the same. All that this would affect is connect and disconnect time.

b. Increasing the number of frames would decrease frame size (number of bits/frame). This would lower line efficiency, because the propagation time is unchanged but more acknowledgments would be needed.

c. For a given message size, increasing the frame size decreases the number of frames. This is the reverse of (b).

8.23 A ® B: Propagation time = 4000 ´ 5 msec = 20 msec

Transmission time per frame =

B ® C: Propagation time = 1000 ´ 5 msec = 5 msec

Transmission time per frame = x = 1000/R

R = data rate between B and C (unknown)

A can transmit three frames to B and then must wait for the acknowledgment of the first frame before transmitting additional frames. The first frame takes 10 msec to transmit; the last bit of the first frame arrives at B 20 msec after it was transmitted, and therefore 30 msec after the frame transmission began. It will take an additional 20 msec for B's acknowledgment to return to A. Thus, A can transmit 3 frames in 50 msec.

B can transmit one frame to C at a time. It takes 5 + x msec for the frame to be received at C and an additional 5 msec for C's acknowledgment to return to A. Thus, B can transmit one frame every 10 + x msec, or 3 frames every 30 + 3x msec. Thus:

30 + 3x = 50

x = 6.66 msec

R = 1000/x = 150 kbps

8.24 Round trip propagation delay of the link = 2 ´ L ´ t

Time to transmit a frame = B/R

To reach 100% utilization, the transmitter should be able to transmit frames continuously during a round trip propagation time. Thus, the total number of frames transmitted without an ACK is:

, where is the smallest integer greater than or equal to X

This number can be accommodated by an M-bit sequence number with:

8.25 a.

8.26 Let t1 = time to transmit a single frame

The transmitting station can send 7 frames without an acknowledgment. From the beginning of the transmission of the first frame, the time to receive the acknowledgment of that frame is:

t2 = 270 + t1 + 270 = 541.024 msec

During the time t2, 7 frames are sent.

Data per frame = 1024 – 48 = 976