| Chapter 9 Satellite Communications |
Answers to Questions
9.1 Coverage area: global, regional, or national. The larger the area of coverage, the more satellites must be involved in a single networked system. Service type: fixed service satellite (FSS), broadcast service satellite (BSS), and mobile service satellite (MSS). This chapter is concerned with FSS and BSS types. General usage: commercial, military, amateur, experimental.
9.2 (1) The area of coverage of a satellite system far exceeds that of a terrestrial system. In the case of a geostationary satellite, a single antenna is visible to about one-fourth of the earth's surface. (2) Spacecraft power and allocated bandwidth are limited resources that call for careful tradeoffs in earth station/satellite design parameters. (3) Conditions between communicating satellites are more time invariant that those between satellite and earth station or between two terrestrial wireless antennas. Thus, satellite-to-satellite communication links can be designed with great precision. (4) Transmission cost is independent of distance, within the satellite's area of coverage. (5) Broadcast, multicast, and point-to-point applications are readily accommodated. (6) Very high bandwidths or data rates are available to the user. (7) Although satellite links are subject to short-term outages or degradations, the quality of transmission is normally extremely high. (8) For a geostationary satellite, there is an earth-satellite-earth propagation delay of about one-fourth of a second. (9) A transmitting earth station can in many cases receive its own transmission.
9.3 (1) The orbit may be circular, with the center of the circle at the center of the earth, or elliptical, with the earth's center at one of the two foci of the ellipse. (2) A satellite may orbit around the earth in different planes. An equatorial orbit is directly above the earth's equator. A polar orbit passes over both poles. Other orbits are referred to as inclined orbits. (3) The altitude of communications satellites is classified as geostationary orbit (GEO), medium earth orbit (MEO), and low earth orbit (LEO).
9.4 LEO, GEO and HEO stand for low earth orbit, geostationary (or geosynchronous) orbit, and highly elliptical orbit, respectively. The traditional GEO satellite is in a circular orbit in an equatorial plane such that the satellite rotates about the earth at the same angular velocity that the earth spins on its axis. To accomplish this the satellite must be approximately 35,838 km above the earth’s surface at the equator. LEO satellites are satellites with much lower orbits, on the order of 700 to 1,400 km high. Finally, HEO satellites are characterized by an orbit that is an ellipse with one axis very substantially larger than the other. The height of the orbit can vary; it is the shape of the orbit that characterizes this type of satellite.
Because of the high altitude of the GEO satellite the signal strength is relatively weak compared to LEOs. Frequency reuse is more difficult because the antenna beam (all other things being equal) covers a much greater area from a GEO than from a LEO. The propagation delay for a GEO satellite is about 1/4th of second; that of a LEO satellite is much less. Because the GEO satellite must be over the equator, the coverage near the north and south poles is inadequate. For these regions, better communication can be achieved by LEO or HEO satellites. HEO satellites have the additional advantage that they spend most of their time at the “high” part of their orbit so that you get the most coverage for the longest time for this type of satellite. On the other hand, tracking and handoff is not necessary for GEO satellites because they appear stationary relative to the earth. LEO satellites, since they are so low travel very much faster, and cover less area than GEO so that tracking is more difficulty and passing off is frequent. HEOs require tracking and handoffs, as well. However, if the HEOs have high orbits the handoff frequency can be much less and the tracking easier than for LEOs.
9.5 You would use GEOs when the earth stations are not near the poles, when there is a premium on not having to steer the earth station antennas, and when broad earth coverage is important, for television broadcasting for instance. HEOs are primarily of use when coverage of areas near one of the poles is essential, such as the use of the Molniya satellites to cover the northern parts of the former Soviet Union . LEOs are useful for point-to-point communication, and for extensive frequency reuse. Since LEOs have much less propagation delay they are useful for interactive data services. They also can cover polar regions. Finally, while you need many more LEOs for broad coverage, each satellite is much less expensive than a GEO.
9.6 (1) Distance between earth station antenna and satellite antenna. (2) In the case of the downlink, terrestrial distance between earth station antenna and the "aim point" of the satellite. (1) Atmospheric attenuation.
9.7 Oxygen and water.
9.8 Thermal noise, intermodulation noise, and crosstalk.
Answers to Problems
9.1 a. Rearranging the equation, we have a3 = T2µ/(4π2).
One sidereal day is T = 86,164.1 s
a3 = (86,164.1)2 ´ (3.986004418 ´ 105)/(4π2) = 7.496020251 ´ 10 13 km 3
a = 42,164 km
b. h = 35,794 km
9.2 a. a = 6378.14 + 250 = 6628.14 km
T2 = (4π 2 a 3)/µ = (4π2) ´ (6628.14)3/(3.986004418 ´ 105) = 2.88401145 ´ 107 s2
T = 5370.3 s = 89 min 30.3 s
b. The linear velocity is the circumference divided by the period
(2πa)/T = (41645.83)/(5370.3) = 7.775 km /s
9.3 The received signal is, essentially, the same. The received power will increase by a factor of 4
9.4 received_power = transmitted_power + transmitted_gain + received_gain – path_loss
From Equation (2.2):
path_loss = 20 log (4πd/l) = 20 log [4πd/(c/f)]
= 20 log [(4π ´ 4 ´ 107)/(2.727 x 10–2) = –205.3 dB
received_power = 10 + 17 + 52.3 – 205.3 = –126 dBW
9.5 The total bandwidth is 500 MHz. The channel bandwidth is 12 ´ 36 = 432 MHz. So the overhead is ((500 - 432)/500) ´ 100% = 13.6%
9.6 a. The data rate R = 2 ´ QPSK baud rate = 120.272 Mbps
The frame duration T = 0.002 s
The number of frame bits bF = R ´ T = 1.20272 ´ 108 ´ 2 ´ 10–3 = 240544 bits
Overhead calculation: Overhead bits bo = NRbR + NTbp + (NR + NT)bG
where
NR = number of participating reference stations = 2
bR = number of bits in reference burst = 576
NT = number of participating traffic stations
bp = number of preamble bits =560
bG = number guard bits = 24
bo = (2)(576) + 560 NT + (2)(24) + 24 NT = 1200 + 584 NT
bF – bo = 240544 – (1200 + 584 NT) = 239344 – 584 NT
NT = (bF – bo)/16512 = (239344 – 584 NT)/16512
(16512 + 584) NT = 239344
Therefore, NT = 14
b. (bF – bo)/bF = (239344 – 584 ´ 14)/240544 = 0.96
Source: [GLOV98]
9.7 a. The time, Td, available in each station burst for transmission of data bits is
Td = [Tframe – N(tg + tpre)]/N
That is, take the frame time, subtract out all the guard and preamble times, and divide by the number of stations N.
Td = [2000 – 5(5 + 20)]/5 = 375 µs
A burst transmission rate of 30 Mbaud is 30 million signal elements per second and QPSK signal elements carry 2 bits, so the transmitted bit rate in each burst is Rb = 60 Mbps
The capacity of each earth station, Cb, is the number of data bits transmitted in one burst divided by the frame time:
Cb = (375 ´ 60)/2000 = 11.25 Mbps
The number of 64-kbps channels that can be carried is:
(11.25 ´ 106)/(64,000) = 175
b. 11.25 Mbps
c. The total available capacity is 60 Mbps.
The total data transmission rate is 5 ´ 11.25 = 56.25 Mbps
Efficiency = 56.25/60 = 0.9375
9.8 The transponder must carry a total data bit rate of 15 + 10 + 5 = 30 Mbps. Thus, each frame carries 30 Mbps ´ 0.001 s = 30 kb The three preamble and guard times take up 3 ´ (10 + 2) = 36 µs in each frame, leaving 1000 – 36 = 964 µs for transmission of the data. Therefore, the burst bit rate is
| Chapter 10 Cellular Wireless Networks |
Answers to Questions
10.1 Hexagon
10.2 For frequency reuse in a cellular system, the same set of frequencies are used in multiple cells, with these cells separated from one another by enough distance to avoid interference.
10.3 Adding new channels: Typically, when a system is set up in a region, not all of the channels are used, and growth and expansion can be managed in an orderly fashion by adding new channels. Frequency borrowing: In the simplest case, frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells. The frequencies can also be assigned to cells dynamically. Cell splitting: In practice, the distribution of traffic and topographic features is not uniform, and this presents opportunities of capacity increase. Cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells. Cell sectoring: With cell sectoring, a cell is divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each with its own set of channels, typically 3 or 6 sectors per cell. Each sector is assigned a separate subset of the cell's channels, and directional antennas at the base station are used to focus on each sector. Microcells: As cells become smaller, antennas move from the tops of tall buildings or hills, to the tops of small buildings or the sides of large buildings, and finally to lamp posts, where they form microcells. Each decrease in cell size is accompanied by a reduction in the radiated power levels from the base stations and the mobile units. Microcells are useful in city streets in congested areas, along highways, and inside large public buildings.
10.4 To complete a call to a mobile unit, the base stations in a number of cells will send out a page signal in an attempt to find the mobile unit and make the connection.
10.5 Cell blocking probability: the probability of a new call being blocked, due to heavy load on the BS traffic capacity. In this case, the mobile unit is handed off to a neighboring cell based not on signal quality but on traffic capacity. Call dropping probability: the probability that, due to a handoff, a call is terminated. Call completion probability: the probability that an admitted call is not dropped before it terminates. Probability of unsuccessful handoff: the probability that a handoff is executed while the reception conditions are inadequate. Handoff blocking probability: the probability that a handoff cannot be successfully completed. Handoff probability: the probability that a handoff occurs before call termination. Rate of handoff: the number of handoffs per unit time. Interruption duration: the duration of time during a handoff in which a mobile is not connected to either base station. Handoff delay: the distance the mobile moves from the point at which the handoff should occur to the point at which it does occur.
10.6 As the mobile unit moves away from the transmitter, the received power declines due to normal attenuation. In addition, the effects of reflection, diffraction, and scattering can cause rapid changes in received power levels over small distances. This is because the power level is the sum from signals coming from a number of different paths and the phases of those paths are random, sometimes adding and sometimes subtracting. As the mobile unit moves, the contributions along various paths change.
10.7 Open-loop power control depends solely on the mobile unit, with no feedback from the BS, and is used in some SS systems. Closed loop power control adjusts signal strength in the reverse (mobile to BS) channel based on some metric of performance in that reverse channel, such as received signal power level, received signal-to-noise ratio, or received bit error rate.
10.8 The mean rate of calls is the number of calls attempted in a unit time, so its dimensions are calls per second or a similar dimension. Traffic intensity is a normalized version of mean rate of calls, and equals the average number of calls arriving during the average holding period. Thus, traffic intensity is dimensionless.
10.9 Digital traffic channels: The most notable difference between the two generations is that first generation systems are almost purely analog, where as second generation systems are digital. In particular, the first generation systems are designed to support voice channels using FM; digital traffic is supported only by the use of a modem that converts the digital data into analog form. Second generation systems provide digital traffic channels. These readily support digital data; voice traffic is first encoded in digital form before transmitting. Of course, for second-generation systems, the user traffic (data or digitized voice) must be converted to an analog signal for transmission between the mobile unit and the base station. Encryption: Because all of the user traffic, as well as control traffic, is digitized in second-generation systems, it is a relatively simple matter to encrypt all of the traffic to prevent eavesdropping. All second-generation systems provide this capability, whereas first generation systems send user traffic in the clear, providing no security. Error detection and correction: The digital traffic stream of second-generation systems also lends itself to the use of error detection and correction techniques. The result can be very clear voice reception. Channel access: In first generation systems, each cell supports a number of channels. At any given time a channel is allocated to only one user. Second generation systems also provide multiple channels per cell, but each channel is dynamically shared by a number of users using time division multiple access (TDMA) or code division multiple access (CDMA).
10.10 Frequency diversity: Because the transmission is spread out over a larger bandwidth, frequency-dependent transmission impairments, such as noise bursts and selective fading, have less effect on the signal. Multipath resistance: The chipping codes used for CDMA not only exhibit low cross-correlation but also low autocorrelation. Therefore, a version of the signal that is delayed by more than one chip interval does not interfere with the dominant signal as much as in other multipath environments. Privacy: Because spread spectrum is obtained by the use of noise-like signals, where each user has a unique code, privacy is inherent. Graceful degradation: With FDMA or TDMA, a fixed number of users can simultaneously access the system. However, with CDMA, as more users simultaneously access the system, the noise level and hence the error rate increases; only gradually does the system degrade to the point of an unacceptable error rate.
10.11 Self-jamming: Unless all of the mobile users are perfectly synchronized, the arriving transmissions from multiple users will not be perfectly aligned on chip boundaries. Thus the spreading sequences of the different users are not orthogonal and there is some level of cross-correlation. This is distinct from either TDMA or FDMA, in which for reasonable time or frequency guardbands, respectively, the received signals are orthogonal or nearly so. Near-far problem: Signals closer to the receiver are received with less attenuation than signals farther away. Given the lack of complete orthogonality, the transmissions from the more remote mobile units may be more difficult to recover. Thus, power control techniques are very important in a CDMA system. Soft handoff: A smooth handoff from one cell to the next requires that the mobile acquire the new cell before it relinquishes the old. This is referred to as a soft handoff, and is more complex than the hard handoff used in FDMA and TDMA schemes.
10.12 Hard handoff: When the signal strength of a neighboring cell exceeds that of the current cell, plus a threshold, the mobile station is instructed to switch to a new frequency band that is within the allocation of the new cell. Soft handoff: a mobile station is temporarily connected to more than one base station simultaneously. A mobile unit may start out assigned to a single cell. If the unit enters a region in which the transmissions from two base stations are comparable (within some threshold of each other), the mobile unit enters the soft handoff state in which it is connected to the two base stations. The mobile unit remains in this state until one base station clearly predominates, at which time it is assigned exclusively to that cell.
10.13 Voice quality comparable to the public switched telephone network; 144 kbps data rate available to users in high-speed motor vehicles over large areas; 384 kbps available to pedestrians standing or moving slowly over small areas; Support (to be phased in) for 2.048 Mbps for office use; Symmetrical and asymmetrical data transmission rates; Support for both packet switched and circuit switched data services; An adaptive interface to the Internet to reflect efficiently the common asymmetry between inbound and outbound traffic; More efficient use of the available spectrum in general; Support for a wide variety of mobile equipment; Flexibility to allow the introduction of new services and technologies
Answers to Problems
10.1 a. We have the number of clusters M = 16; bandwidth assigned to cluster BCL = 40 MHz; bandwidth required for each two-way channel bch = 60 kHz. The total number of simultaneous calls that can be supported by the system is
kSYS = MBCL/bch = 10,666 channels
b. Total number of channels available is K = BCL/bch = 666. For a frequency reuse factor N, each cell can use kCE = K/N channels.
For N = 4, kCE = 166 channels
For N = 7, kCE = 95 channels
For N = 12, kCE = 55 channels
For N = 19, kCE = 35 channels
c. For N = 4, area = 64 cells; For N = 7, area = 112 cells; For N = 12, area = 192 cells; For N = 19, area = 304 cells.
d. From part b, we know the number of channels that can be carried per cell for each system. The total number of channels available is just 100 times that number, for a result of 16600, 9500, 5500, 3500, respectively. Source: [CARN99]
10.2 a. Steps a and b are the same. The next step is placing the call over the ordinary public switched telephone network (PSTN) to the called subscriber. Steps d, e, and f are the same except that only the mobile unit can be involved in a handoff.
b. Instead of steps a, b, and c, the process starts with a call coming in from the PSTN to an MTSO. From there, steps c, d, e, and f are the same except that only the mobile unit can be involved in a handoff.
10.3 This causes additional interference to co-channel users.
10.4 Suppose that a thermostat on a heating system is set to 20 ° C. Suppose the temperature in the room is greater than 20 ° C and falling. The heating system may not click on until, say, 19 ° C. As the temperature in the room rises, the thermostat may cause the heater to remain on until room temperature reaches 21 ° C.
10.5 A = lh = 1 ´ (23/60) = 0.383 Erlangs
10.6 a. For a given traffic level (A) and given capacity (N), what is the probability of blocking (P)?
(10.5 – 10.07)/(11.1 – 10.07) = (P – 0.002)/(0.005 – 0.002); P = 0.00325
b. What traffic level can be supported with a given capacity to achieve a given probability of blocking?
(0.015 – 0.01)/(0.02 – 0.01) = (A – 12.03)/(13.19 – 12.03); A = 12.61
c. For a given traffic level, what capacity is needed to achieve a certain upper bound on the probability of blocking ?
(6 – 3.96)/(11.1 – 3.96) = (N – 10)/(20 – 10); N = 12.857
10.7 a. The total number of available channels is K = 33000/50 = 660. For a frequency reuse factor N, each cell can use kCE = K/N channels.
For N = 4, kCE = 165 channels
For N = 7, kCE = 94 channels
For N = 12, kCE = 55 channels
b. 32 MHz is available for voice channels for a total of 640 channels.
For N = 4, we can have 160 voice channels and one control channel per cell
For N = 7, we can have 4 cells with 91 voice channels and 3 cells with 92 voice channels, and one control channel per cell.
For N = 12, we can have 8 cells with 53 voice channels and 4 cells with 54 voice channels, and one control channel per cell. Source: [RAPP96]
10.8 a. Number of 30-kHz channels = 12500/30 = 416
Number of voice channels = 416 – 21 = 395
Number of voice channels per cell = 395/7 = 56
b. (56 – 40)/(70 – 40) = (A – 31)/(59.13 – 31); A = 46 Erlangs/cell
c. Number of calls/hour/cell = 46/(100/3600) = 1656
Number of calls/hour/km2 = 1656/8 = 207
d. Number of users/hour/cell = 1656/1.2 = 1380
Number of users/hour/channel = 1380/56 = 24.6
e. The total number of cells is 4000/8 = 500
h = (46 Erlangs/cell ´ 500 cells)/(12.5 MHz ´ 4000 km 2)
= 0.46 Erlangs/MHz/km2 Source: [GARG96]
10.9 (12.5 ´ 106 – 2(10 x 103)/(30 ´ 103) = 416
10.10 (25 ´ 106)/((200 x 103)/8) = 1000 Source: [RAPP96]
10.11 a. From Figure 10.14, we have 156.25 bits in 0.577 ms. Thus, bit duration is:
(0.577 x 10–3)/156.25 = 3.6928 ms
b. The delay is the duration of 1 frame, which is 4.615 ms
10.12 Total bits in one timeslot = 156.25. Data bits = 114.
Overhead = (156.25 – 114)/156.25 = 0.27
10.13 Slow FHSS = multiple signal elements per hop. In GSM, the frequency is changed one per frame, which is many bits, so GSM uses slow frequency hopping.
10.14 a. The amount of bandwidth allocated to voice channels (BcNt) must be no greater than the total bandwidth (Bw). Therefore ha £ 1.
b. x = (30 ´ 103 ´ 395)/(12.5 ´ 106) = 0.948
10.15 a. Number of subscribers = Traffic/0.03
| Cell number | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
| Subscribers | 1026.7 | 2223.3 | 1620.0 | 1106.7 | 1273.3 | 1260.0 | 1086.7 |
b. Number of calls per hour per subscriber = l = A/h = 0.03/(120/3600) = 0.9
c. Multiply results of part (a) by 0.9
| Cell number | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
| Calls per hour | 924 | 2001 | 1458 | 996 | 1146 | 1134 | 978 |
d. The table in the problem statement gives the value of A. Use P = 0.02. Find N.
| Cell number | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
| Channels | 40 | 78 | 59 | 43 | 48 | 48 | 42 |
e. Total number of subscribers = the sum of the values from part (a) = 9597
f. From (d), the total number of channels required = 358
Average number of subscribers per channel = 9597/358 = 26.8
g. Subscriber density = 9597/3100 = 3.1 subscribers per km2
h. Total traffic = the sum of the values from table in the problem statement = 287.9
i. Erlangs per km2 = 287.9/3100 = 0.09
j. The area of a hexagon of radius R is A = . For A = 3100/7 = 442.86 km 2
we have R = 13 km
Source: [GARG96]
| Chapter 11 Cordless Systems and Wireless Local Loop |
Answers to Questions
11.1 Standardized cordless systems can support multiple users from the same base station, which could include either multiple telephone handsets or both voice and data devices (e.g., fax or printer). Standardized cordless systems can operate in a number of environment.
11.2 With TDD data are transmitted in one direction at a time, with transmission alternating between the two directions. TDM is a multiplexing technique that allows multiple data sources to transmit over the same channel by taking turns. With full-duplex TDM, data are transmitted in both directions simultaneously.
11.3 The Q channel is used to broadcast general system information from the base station to all terminals. The P channel provides paging from the base station to the terminals. In response to a page and at the time of handoff, a terminal uses the two-way M channel to exchange medium access control messages with the base station. Once a connection is established, the N channel provides a handshaking protocol. The C channel provides call management for active connections.
11.4 Cost: Wireless systems are less expensive than wired systems. Installation time: WLL systems typically can be installed rapidly. Selective installation: Radio units are installed only for those subscribers who want the service at a given time.
11.5 (1) There are wide unused frequency bands available above 25 GHz. (2)At these high frequencies, wide channel bandwidths can be used, providing high data rates. (3) Small size transceivers and adaptive antenna arrays can be used.
11.6 (1) Free space loss increases with the square of the frequency (Equation 5.2), thus losses are much higher in this range than in the ranges used for traditional microwave systems. (2) Generally, below 10 GHz, we can ignore attenuation due to rainfall and atmospheric or gaseous absorption. Above 10 GHz, these attenuation effects are large. (3) Multipath losses can be quite high. As was pointed out in Chapter 5, Reflection occurs when an electromagnetic signal encounters a surface that is large relative to the wavelength of the signal; scattering occurs if the size of an obstacle is on the order of the wavelength of the signal or less; diffraction occurs when the wavefront encounters the edge of an obstacle that is large compared to the wavelength.
11.7 First, frequency selective fading only affects some subchannels and not the whole signal. If the data stream is protected by a forward error-correcting code, this type of fading is easily handled. More importantly, OFDM overcome intersymbol interference (ISI) in a multipath environment.
11.8 (1) MMDS signals have larger wavelengths (greater than 10 cm ) and can travel farther without losing significant power. Hence MMDS can operate in considerably larger cells, thereby lowering base station equipment costs. (2) Equipment at lower frequencies is less expensive, yielding cost savings at both the subscriber and base station. (3) MMDS signals don't get blocked as easily by objects and are less susceptible to rain absorption.
11.9 802.16.1 is targeted at the 10 to 66 GHz spectrum and is considered a millimeter wave system. It is designed to support data rates above 2 Mbps. The target market is small and medium size businesses. 802.16.2 is concerned with coexistence of multiple systems in the same area. 802.16.3 is targeted at the 2 to 11 GHz spectrum and is a microwave system. It is designed for data rates below 2 Mbps. The target market is residential and small business.
Answers to Problems
11.1 A straightforward way to do this is to double the bandwidth of each individual channel (using half as many channels), double the data rate, and use TDD on each channel. So, the channel bandwidth becomes 400 kHz with a bit rate of 541.6 kbps. Total number of TDD channels = 125.
11.2 a. First, we need the attenuation from rain. We use Equation 11.3, namely A = aRb. From Table 11.8, we get R = 32 mm /hr. For the parameters a and b, we use Table 11.7 and interpolate for ah and bh at 38 GHz, yielding a = 0.3152 and b = 0.955. With these parameters A = 0.3152 x (32)0.955 = 8.63 dB/km.
Total attenuation = 8.63 x 12 = 103.56 dB
b. At 99.9%, R = 10 mm /hr. A = 0.3152 x (10)0.955 = 2.84 dB/km
Total attenuation = 2.84 x 12 = 34.08 dB
At 99%, R = 2 mm /hr. A = 0.3152 x (2)0.955 = 0.61 dB/km
Total attenuation = 0.61 x 12 = 7.32 dB
The 99.99% requirement would be difficult to meet.
Source: [FREE98]
| Chapter 12 Mobile IP and Wireless Application Protocol |
Answers to Questions
12.1 A mobile user is connected to one or more applications across the Internet such that the user's point of attachment changes dynamically, and that all connections are automatically maintained despite the change. For a nomadic user, the user's Internet connection is terminated each time the user moves and a new connection is initiated when the user dials back in.
12.2 Tunneling is a process in which an IP datagram is encapsulated with an outer IP header so as to be transmitted across the Internet using the destination address and parameters of the outer header.
12.3 Discovery: A mobile node uses a discovery procedure to identify prospective home agents and foreign agents. Registration: A mobile node uses an authenticated registration procedure to inform its home agent of its care-of address. Tunneling: Tunneling is used to forward IP datagrams from a home address to a care-of address.
12.4 Discovery makes use of the existing ICMP (Internet control message protocol) by adding the appropriate extensions to the ICMP header.
12.5 The destination care-of address can either be that of a foreign agent, or it can be a co-located address that is associated physically with the node.
12.6 The foreign agent address is used when there is a foreign agent present and available on the foreign network. The co-located address is used if there is no foreign agent or all foreign agents on the foreign network are busy.
12.7 An HTML filter translates the HTML content into WML content. It may or may not be collocated with the WAP proxy. The proxy converts the WML to a more compact form known as binary WML and delivers it to the mobile user over a wireless network using the WAP protocol stack.
12.8 Deck structure, content, formatting, user input, variables, timers, tasks, task/event bindings.
12.9 Text and image support: Formatting and layout commands are provided for text and limited image capability. Deck/card organizational metaphor: WML documents are subdivided into small, well-defined units of user interaction called cards. Users navigate by moving back and forth between cards. A card specifies one or more units of interaction (a menu, a screen of text, or a text-entry field). A WML deck is similar to an HTML page in that it is identified by a Web address (URL) and is the unit of content transmission. Support for navigation among cards and decks: WML includes provisions for event handling, which is used for navigation or executing scripts.
12.10 Class 0 provides an unreliable datagram service, which can be used for an unreliable push operation. Class 1 provides a reliable datagram service, which can be used for a reliable push operation. Class 2 provides a request/response transaction service and supports the execution of multiple transactions during one WSP session.
12.11 Data integrity: Ensures that data sent between the client and the gateway are not modified, using message authentication. Privacy: Uses encryption to ensure that a third party cannot read the data. Authentication: Establishes the authentication of the two parties, using digital certificates. Denial-of-service protection: Detects and rejects messages that are replayed or not successfully verified.
Answers to Problems
12.1 a.
| MAC-H DA = MACDA(E-Z) | LLC-H DSAP = DSAP (E) | IP-H DA = IPDA(HA-E) | TCP-H | Data |
b. MAC frame leaving D:
| MAC-H DA = MACDA(R3-Z) | LLC-H DSAP = DSAP (R3) | IP-H DA = IPDA(HA-E) | TCP-H | Data |
IP datagram leaving R3 (using header formats of Figure 12.7a ):
| IP-H DA = IPDA(CA-E) | IP-H DA = IPDA(HA-E) | TCP-H | Data |
c. IP datagram leaving R3 (using header formats of Figure 12.7b):
| IP-H DA = IPDA(CA-E) | IP-H DA = IPDA(HA-E) | TCP-H | Data |
Legend: MAC-H = MAC header; LLC-H = LLC header; IP-H = IP header; TCP-H = TCP header; MACDA(E-Z) = MAC destination address of E on LAN Z; DSAP(E) = LLC DSAP for E; IPDA(HA-E) = E's home IP address; IPDA(CA-E) = E's care-of IP address.
12.2 a. IP datagram arriving at R1 from Internet (using header formats of Figure 12.7a ):
| IP-H DA = IPDA(R1) | IP-H DA = IPDA(HA-A) | TCP-H | Data |
MAC frame leaving R1 onto LAN X:
| MAC-H DA = MACDA(A-X) | LLC-H DSAP = DSAP (A) | IP-H DA = IPDA(HA-A) | TCP-H | Data |
b. IP datagram arriving at R1 from Internet (using header formats of Figure 12.7b):
| IP-H DA = IPDA(R1) | IP-H DA = IPDA(HA-A) | TCP-H | Data |
MAC frame leaving R1 onto LAN X:
| MAC-H DA = MACDA(A-X) | LLC-H DSAP = DSAP (A) | IP-H DA = IPDA(HA-A) | TCP-H | Data |
c. IP datagram arriving at R1 from Internet (using header formats of Figure 12.7a ):
| IP-H DA = IPDA(A-X) | IP-H DA = IPDA(HA-A) | TCP-H | Data |
MAC frame leaving R1 onto LAN X:
| MAC-H DA = MACDA(A-X) | LLC-H DSAP = DSAP (A) | IP-H DA = IPDA(A-X) | IP-H DA = IPDA(HA-A) | TCP-H | Data |
d. IP datagram arriving at R1 from Internet (using header formats of Figure 12.7b):
| IP-H DA = IPDA(A-X) | IP-H DA = IPDA(HA-A) | TCP-H | Data |
MAC frame leaving R1 onto LAN X:
| MAC-H DA = MACDA(A-X) | LLC-H DSAP = DSAP (A) | IP-H DA = IPDA(A-X) | IP-H DA = IPDA(HA-A) | TCP-H | Data |
12.3 Home address, care-of address, lifetime.
12.4 Home address, home agent address, MAC address, lifetime.
12.5 The change cipher spec protocol exists to signal transitions in ciphering strategies, and can be sent independently of the complete handshake protocol exchange.
| Chapter 13 Wireless LAN Technology |
Answers to Questions
13.1 LAN extension: a wireless LAN integrated with a wired LAN to extend the coverage area of the LAN complex; cross-building interconnect: wireless point-to-point link two LANs; nomadic access: provides a wireless link between a LAN hub and a mobile data terminal equipped with an antenna, such as a laptop computer or notepad computer; ad hoc network: a peer-to-peer network (no centralized server) set up temporarily to meet some immediate need.
13.2 Throughput: The medium access control protocol should make as efficient use as possible of the wireless medium to maximize capacity. Number of nodes: Wireless LANs may need to support hundreds of nodes across multiple cells. Connection to backbone LAN: In most cases, interconnection with stations on a wired backbone LAN is required. For infrastructure wireless LANs, this is easily accomplished through the use of control modules that connect to both types of LANs. There may also need to be accommodation for mobile users and ad hoc wireless networks. Service area: A typical coverage area for a wireless LAN has a diameter of 100 to 300 m . Battery power consumption: Mobile workers use battery-powered workstations that need to have a long battery life when used with wireless adapters. This suggests that a MAC protocol that requires mobile nodes to monitor access points constantly or engage in frequent handshakes with a base station is inappropriate. Typical wireless LAN implementations have features to reduce power consumption while not using the network, such as a sleep mode. Transmission robustness and security: Unless properly designed, a wireless LAN may be interference prone and easily eavesdropped. The design of a wireless LAN must permit reliable transmission even in a noisy environment and should provide some level of security from eavesdropping. Collocated network operation: As wireless LANs become more popular, it is quite likely for two or more wireless LANs to operate in the same area or in some area where interference between the LANs is possible. Such interference may thwart the normal operation of a MAC algorithm and may allow unauthorized access to a particular LAN. License-free operation: Users would prefer to buy and operate wireless LAN products without having to secure a license for the frequency band used by the LAN. Handoff/roaming: The MAC protocol used in the wireless LAN should enable mobile stations to move from one cell to another. Dynamic configuration: The MAC addressing and network management aspects of the LAN should permit dynamic and automated addition, deletion, and relocation of end systems without disruption to other users.
13.3 Single-cell wireless LAN: all of the wireless end systems are within range of a single control module. Multiple-cell wireless LAN: there are multiple control modules interconnected by a wired LAN; each control module supports a number of wireless end systems within its transmission range.
13.4 A Kiviat graph provides a pictorial means of comparing systems along multiple variables. The variables are laid out at equal angular intervals. A given system is defined by one point on each variable; these points are connected to yield a shape that is characteristic of that system.
13.5 (1) The spectrum for infrared is virtually unlimited, which presents the possibility of achieving extremely high data rates. (2) The infrared spectrum is unregulated worldwide, which is not true of some portions of the microwave spectrum. (3) Infrared light is diffusely reflected by light-colored objects; thus it is possible to use ceiling reflection to achieve coverage of an entire room. (4) Infrared light does not penetrate walls or other opaque objects. This has two advantages: First, infrared communications can be more easily secured against eavesdropping than microwave; and second, a separate infrared installation can be operated in every room in a building without interference, enabling the construction of very large infrared LANs. (5) Another strength of infrared is that the equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple.
13.6 (1) Many indoor environments experience rather intense infrared background radiation, from sunlight and indoor lighting. This ambient radiation appears as noise in an infrared receiver, requiring the use of transmitters of higher power than would otherwise be required and also limiting the range. (2) Increases in transmitter power are limited by concerns of eye safety and excessive power consumption.
13.7 The transmitted signal can be focused and aimed (as in a remote TV control); it can be radiated omnidirectionally; or it can be reflected from a light-colored ceiling.
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13.6 Wired LANs become part of a location’s infrastructure and are therefore less flexible in maintenance and modification, however, the physical nature of the wired LAN makes it inherently more controllable. Wireless LANs are more flexible in implementation and modification, but require more complex maintenance mechanisms because of their more fluid characteristics. Unique concerns for wireless LAN designers include: device power consumption, quality and security of transmission medium, licensing and other concerns related to the mobile nature of the technology.
13.7 FCC OET-65 (Bulletin on Evaluating RF Exposure Compliance) and ANSI/IEEE C95.1-1999 (Standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3 kHz to 300 GHz). Both documents characterize safety concerns associated with wireless media. Concerns primarily involve the levels of radiation exposure from wireless devices and the operation of these devices in proximity to explosive devices and where it may interfere with other vital electronic traffic. Specific references to these documents are provided on the web at:
http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Engineering_Technology/Documents/bulletins/oet65/oet65.pdf
http://www.rfsafetysolutions.com/IEEE_standard.htm
| Chapter 14 Wi-Fi and the IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Standard |
Answers to Questions
14.1 Logical link control (LLC): provides an interface to higher layers and perform flow and error control; medium access control (MAC): provides addressing for physical attachment points to the LAN and provides medium access; physical: defines the topology, transmission medium, and signaling.
14.2 A MAC address defines a physical point of attachment to the LAN. An LLC address identifies a particular LLC user (next higher layer above LLC).
14.3 Unacknowledged connectionless service: This service is a datagram-style service. It is a very simple service that does not involve any of the flow- and error-control mechanisms. Thus, the delivery of data is not guaranteed. Connection-mode service: This service is similar to that offered by HDLC. A logical connection is set up between two users exchanging data, and flow control and error control are provided. Acknowledged connectionless service: This is a cross between the previous two services. It provides that datagrams are to be acknowledged, but no prior logical connection is set up.
14.4 An access point functions as a bridge to enable the linking of multiple separate 802.11 wireless LANs. A portal provides an interconnection point between an 802.11 wireless LAN and a wired LAN.
14.5 It may or may not be.
14.6 Association: Establishes an initial association between a station and an AP. Authentication: Used to establish the identity of stations to each other. Deauthentication: This service is invoked whenever an existing authentication is to be terminated. Disassociation: A notification from either a station or an AP that an existing association is terminated. A station should give this notification before leaving an ESS or shutting down. Distribution: used by stations to exchange MAC frames when the frame must traverse the DS to get from a station in one BSS to a station in another BSS. Integration: enables transfer of data between a station on an IEEE 802.11 LAN and a station on an integrated IEEE 802.x LAN. MSDU delivery: delivery of MAC service data units. Privacy: Used to prevent the contents of messages from being read by other than the intended recipient. Reassocation: Enables an established association to be transferred from one AP to another, allowing a mobile station to move from one BSS to another.
14.7 Mobility refers to the types of physical transitions that can be made by a mobile node within an 802.11 environment (no transition, movement from one BSS to another within an ESS, movement from one ESS to another). Association is a service that allows a mobile node that has made a transition to identify itself to the AP within a BSS so that the node can participate in data exchanges with other mobile nodes.
14.8 (1) In order to transmit over a wired LAN, a station must be physically connected to the LAN. On the other hand, with a wireless LAN, any station within radio range of the other devices on the LAN can transmit. In a sense, there is a form of authentication with a wired LAN, in that it requires some positive and presumably observable action to connect a station to a wired LAN. (2) Similarly, in order to receive a transmission from a station that is part of a wired LAN, the receiving station must also be attached to the wired LAN. On the other hand, with a wireless LAN, any station within radio range can receive. Thus, a wired LAN provides a degree of privacy, limiting reception of data to stations connected to the LAN.
14.9 Shared key authentication is more secure because it requires the use of a secret key shared only by the two sides. Open system authentication is simply a protocol for agreeing to communicate and provides no security features.
Answers to Problems
| Chapter 15 Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15 |
Answers to Questions
15.1 Data and voice access points: Bluetooth facilitates real-time voice and data transmissions by providing effortless wireless connection of portable and stationary communications devices. Cable replacement: Bluetooth eliminates the need for numerous, often proprietary, cable attachments for connection of practically any kind of communication device. Connections are instant and are maintained even when devices are not within line of sight. The range of each radio is approximately 10 m , but can be extended to 100 m with an optional amplifier. Ad hoc networking: A device equipped with a Bluetooth radio can establish instant connection to another Bluetooth radio as soon as it comes into range.
15.2 The core specifications describe the details of the various layers of the Bluetooth protocol architecture, from the radio interface to link control. The profile specifications are concerned with the use of Bluetooth technology to support various applications.
15.3 A set of protocols that implement a particular Bluetooth-based application.
15.4 The radio designated as the master makes the determination of the channel (frequency hopping sequence) and phase (timing offset, i.e., when to transmit) that shall be used by all devices on this piconet. The radio designated as master makes this determination using its own device address as a parameter, while the slave devices must tune to the same channel and phase. A slave may only communicate with the master and may only communicate when granted permission by the master.
15.5 A frequency hopping defines a logical channel. This channel can be shared using TDD.
15.6 I n FH-CDMA, the spreading sequence defines the sequence of frequencies to be used for frequency hopping. In DS-CDMA, the spreading sequence is used to map one data bit into multiple transmitted bits.
15.7 Synchronous connection-oriented (SCO): Allocates a fixed bandwidth between a point-to-point connection involving the master and a single slave. The master maintains the SCO link by using reserved slots at regular intervals. The basic unit of reservation is two consecutive slots (one in each transmission direction). The master can support up to three simultaneous SCO links while a slave can support two or three SCO links. SCO packets are never retransmitted Asynchronous connectionless (ACL): A point-to-multipoint link between the master and all the slaves in the piconet. In slots not reserved for SCO links, the master can exchange packets with any slave on a per-slot basis, including a slave already engaged in an SCO link. Only a single ACL link can exist. For most ACL packets, packet retransmission is applied.
15.8 1/3 rate FEC (forward error correction); 2/3 rate FEC; ARQ (automatic repeat request).
15.9 Link control (LC): Used to manage the flow of packets over the link interface. The LC control channel is mapped onto the packet header. This channel carries low-level link control information like ARQ, flow control, and payload characterization. The LC channel is carried in every packet except in the ID packet, which has no packet header. Link manager (LM): Transports link management information between participating stations. This logical channel supports LMP traffic and can be carried over either an SCO or ACL link. User asynchronous (UA): Carries asynchronous user data. This channel is normally carried over the ACL link, but may be carried in a DV packet on the SCO link. User isochronous (UI): Carries isochronous user data. This channel is normally carried over the ACL link, but may be carried in a DV packet on the SCO link. At the baseband level, the UI channel is treated the same way as a UA channel. Timing to provide isochronous properties is provided at a higher layer. User synchronous (US): Carries synchronous user data. This channel is carried over the SCO link.
15.10 Authentication; encryption (privacy); key management and usage.
15.11 Connectionless: Supports the connectionless service. Each channel is unidirectional. This channel type is typically used for broadcast from the master to multiple slaves. Connection-oriented: Supports the connection-oriented service. Each channel is bidirectional (full-duplex). A quality of service (QoS) flow specification is assigned in each direction. Signaling: Provides for the exchange of signaling messages between L2CAP entities.
15.12 A flow specification is a set of parameters that indicate a performance level that the transmitter will attempt to achieve.
Answers to Problems
15.3 a.
b.
| B5 | B4 | B3 | B2 | B1 | B0 |
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
| 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
The final column is the output. Hence the first 8 bits of output are 10000011.
15.4 a.
b.
15.5 a. During a bust of S seconds, a total of MS octets are transmitted. A burst empties the bucket (b octets) and, during the burst, tokens for an additional rS octets are generated, for a total burst size of (b + rS). Thus,
b + rS = MS
S = b/(M – r)
b. S = (250 ´ 103)/(23 ´ 106) » 11 msec
15.6 a. b2(n) = a1(n); b1(n) = a0(n) Å a0(n – 2); b0(n) = a0(n – 1)
b.
| a0(n – 2) | a0(n – 1) | a0(n) | a1(n) | b2(n) | b1(n) | b0(n) |
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
| 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
| 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
| 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
| 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
| 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
| 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
| 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
c. (01) ® (00): 00/010 (90º) and 10/110 (270º)
(01) ® (10): 01/000 (0º) and 11/100 (180º)
(11) ® (01): 00/010 (135º) and 10/111 (315º)
(11) ® (11): 01/000 (45º) and 11/101 (225º)
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