文章目录
2023-10-08 年秋冬季开源操作系统训练营启动会视频回放录制文件：https://meeting.tencent.com/v2/cloud-record/share?id=01c332dd-3787-4e2b-97dd-faa15caf7f73&from=3
训练营第一阶段的内容链接为: https://github.com/LearningOS/rust-based-os-comp2023/blob/main/2023-autumn-scheduling-1.md
排行榜网址：https://os2edu.cn/2023-autumn-rust-ranking/
课程地址：https://os2edu.cn/course/123/
我的 2023 仓库如下：
git clone https://github.com/LearningOS/rust-rustlings-2023-autumn-datager
cd rust-rustlings-datager && cargo install --force --path .
开始答题即可，每答完一题则删除 // I AM NOT DONE 即可
一、variables
1.1 variables2 需指定类型
fn main() {
let x = 10;
if x == 10 {
println!("x is ten!");
} else {
println!("x is not ten!");
}
}
The compiler could not infer a type and asked for a type annotation.
Erroneous code example:
let x = "hello".chars().rev().collect();
This error indicates that type inference did not result in one unique possible type, and extra information is required. In most cases this
can be provided by adding a type annotation. Sometimes you need to specify a generic type parameter manually.
A common example is the collect method on Iterator. It has a generic type parameter with a FromIterator bound, which for a char iterator is implemented
by Vec and String among others. Consider the following snippet that reverses the characters of a string:
In the first code example, the compiler cannot infer what the type of x should be: Vec<char> and String are both suitable candidates. To
specify which type to use, you can use a type annotation on x:
let x: Vec<char> = "hello".chars().rev().collect();
It is not necessary to annotate the full type. Once the ambiguity is resolved, the compiler can infer the rest:
let x: Vec<_> = "hello".chars().rev().collect();
Another way to provide the compiler with enough information, is to specify the generic type parameter:
let x = "hello".chars().rev().collect::<Vec<char>>();
Again, you need not specify the full type if the compiler can infer it:
let x = "hello".chars().rev().collect::<Vec<_>>();
Apart from a method or function with a generic type parameter, this error can occur when a type parameter of a struct or trait cannot be
inferred. In that case it is not always possible to use a type annotation, because all candidates have the same return type. For instance:
struct Foo<T> {
num: T,
}
impl<T> Foo<T> {
fn bar() -> i32 {
0
}
fn baz() {
let number = Foo::bar();
}
}
This will fail because the compiler does not know which instance of Foo to call bar on. Change Foo::bar() to Foo::<T>::bar() to resolve the
error.
1.2 variable5 shadowing
https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html#shadowing
/*
fn main() {
let number = "T-H-R-E-E"; // don't change this line
println!("Spell a Number : {}", number);
number = 3; // don't rename this variable
println!("Number plus two is : {}", number + 2);
}
*/
fn main() {
let number = "T-H-R-E-E"; // don't change this line
println!("Spell a Number : {}", number);
let number = 3; // don't rename this variable
println!("Number plus two is : {}", number + 2);
}
1.3 variable6 constants
https://doc.rust-lang.org/book/ch03-01-variables-and-mutability.html#constants
/*
const NUMBER = 3;
fn main() {
println!("Number {}", NUMBER);
}
*/
二、move semantics
2.1 move semantics 5
/*
fn main() {
let mut x = 100;
let y = &mut x;
let z = &mut x; // 不能同时存在多个可变引用
*y += 100;
*z += 1000;
assert_eq!(x, 1200);
}
*/
fn main() {
let mut x = 100;
let y = &mut x;
*y += 100;
let z = &mut x;
*z += 1000;
assert_eq!(x, 1200);
}
2.2 move semantics 6
/*
fn main() {
let data = "Rust is great!".to_string();
get_char(data);
string_uppercase(&data);
}
// Should not take ownership
fn get_char(data: String) -> char {
data.chars().last().unwrap()
}
// Should take ownership
fn string_uppercase(mut data: &String) {
data = &data.to_uppercase();
println!("{}", data);
}
*/
fn main() {
let data = "Rust is great!".to_string();
get_char(data.clone());
string_uppercase(data);
}
// Should not take ownership
fn get_char(data: String) -> char {
data.chars().last().unwrap()
}
// Should take ownership
fn string_uppercase(mut data: String) {
data = data.to_uppercase();
println!("{}", data);
}
三 struct
3.1 struct 1
struct ColorClassicStruct {
// TODO: Something goes here
red: i32,
green: i32,
blue: i32,
}
struct ColorTupleStruct(i32, i32, i32);
#[derive(Debug)]
struct UnitLikeStruct;
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn classic_c_structs() {
// TODO: Instantiate a classic c struct!
let green = ColorClassicStruct {
red: 0,
green: 255,
blue: 0,
};
assert_eq!(green.red, 0);
assert_eq!(green.green, 255);
assert_eq!(green.blue, 0);
}
#[test]
fn tuple_structs() {
// TODO: Instantiate a tuple struct!
let green = ColorTupleStruct(0, 255, 0);
assert_eq!(green.0, 0);
assert_eq!(green.1, 255);
assert_eq!(green.2, 0);
}
#[test]
fn unit_structs() {
// TODO: Instantiate a unit-like struct!
let unit_like_struct = UnitLikeStruct {};
let message = format!("{:?}s are fun!", unit_like_struct);
assert_eq!(message, "UnitLikeStructs are fun!");
}
}
3.2 struct 2
/*
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Order {
name: String,
year: u32,
made_by_phone: bool,
made_by_mobile: bool,
made_by_email: bool,
item_number: u32,
count: u32,
}
fn create_order_template() -> Order {
Order {
name: String::from("Bob"),
year: 2019,
made_by_phone: false,
made_by_mobile: false,
made_by_email: true,
item_number: 123,
count: 0,
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn your_order() {
let order_template = create_order_template();
// TODO: Create your own order using the update syntax and template above!
// let your_order =
assert_eq!(your_order.name, "Hacker in Rust");
assert_eq!(your_order.year, order_template.year);
assert_eq!(your_order.made_by_phone, order_template.made_by_phone);
assert_eq!(your_order.made_by_mobile, order_template.made_by_mobile);
assert_eq!(your_order.made_by_email, order_template.made_by_email);
assert_eq!(your_order.item_number, order_template.item_number);
assert_eq!(your_order.count, 1);
}
}
*/
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn your_order() {
let order_template = create_order_template();
// TODO: Create your own order using the update syntax and template above!
let your_order = Order {
name: "Hacker in Rust".to_string(),
count: 1,
..order_template
};
assert_eq!(your_order.name, "Hacker in Rust");
assert_eq!(your_order.year, order_template.year);
assert_eq!(your_order.made_by_phone, order_template.made_by_phone);
assert_eq!(your_order.made_by_mobile, order_template.made_by_mobile);
assert_eq!(your_order.made_by_email, order_template.made_by_email);
assert_eq!(your_order.item_number, order_template.item_number);
assert_eq!(your_order.count, 1);
}
}
四、enum
4.1 enums 2
/*
#[derive(Debug)]
enum Message {
// TODO: define the different variants used below
}
impl Message {
fn call(&self) {
println!("{:?}", self);
}
}
fn main() {
let messages = [
Message::Move { x: 10, y: 30 },
Message::Echo(String::from("hello world")),
Message::ChangeColor(200, 255, 255),
Message::Quit,
];
for message in &messages {
message.call();
}
}
*/
#[derive(Debug)]
enum Message {
// TODO: define the different variants used below
Move { x: i32, y: i32 },
Echo(String),
ChangeColor(i32, i32, i32),
Quit,
}
impl Message {
fn call(&self) {
println!("{:?}", self);
}
}
fn main() {
let messages = [
Message::Move { x: 10, y: 30 },
Message::Echo(String::from("hello world")),
Message::ChangeColor(200, 255, 255),
Message::Quit,
];
for message in &messages {
message.call();
}
}
4.2 enum 3
/*
enum Message {
// TODO: implement the message variant types based on their usage below
}
struct Point {
x: u8,
y: u8,
}
struct State {
color: (u8, u8, u8),
position: Point,
quit: bool,
message: String,
}
impl State {
fn change_color(&mut self, color: (u8, u8, u8)) {
self.color = color;
}
fn quit(&mut self) {
self.quit = true;
}
fn echo(&mut self, s: String) { self.message = s }
fn move_position(&mut self, p: Point) {
self.position = p;
}
fn process(&mut self, message: Message) {
// TODO: create a match expression to process the different message
// variants
// Remember: When passing a tuple as a function argument, you'll need
// extra parentheses: fn function((t, u, p, l, e))
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn test_match_message_call() {
let mut state = State {
quit: false,
position: Point { x: 0, y: 0 },
color: (0, 0, 0),
message: "hello world".to_string(),
};
state.process(Message::ChangeColor(255, 0, 255));
state.process(Message::Echo(String::from("hello world")));
state.process(Message::Move(Point { x: 10, y: 15 }));
state.process(Message::Quit);
assert_eq!(state.color, (255, 0, 255));
assert_eq!(state.position.x, 10);
assert_eq!(state.position.y, 15);
assert_eq!(state.quit, true);
assert_eq!(state.message, "hello world");
}
}
*/
enum Message {
// TODO: implement the message variant types based on their usage below
ChangeColor(u8, u8, u8),
Echo(String),
Move(Point),
Quit,
}
struct Point {
x: u8,
y: u8,
}
struct State {
color: (u8, u8, u8),
position: Point,
quit: bool,
message: String,
}
impl State {
fn change_color(&mut self, color: (u8, u8, u8)) {
self.color = color;
}
fn quit(&mut self) {
self.quit = true;
}
fn echo(&mut self, s: String) {
self.message = s
}
fn move_position(&mut self, p: Point) {
self.position = p;
}
fn process(&mut self, message: Message) {
// TODO: create a match expression to process the different message
// variants
// Remember: When passing a tuple as a function argument, you'll need
// extra parentheses: fn function((t, u, p, l, e))
match message {
Message::ChangeColor(r, g, b) => self.change_color((r, g, b)),
Message::Echo(s) => self.echo(s),
Message::Move(p) => self.move_position(p),
Message::Quit => self.quit(),
}
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn test_match_message_call() {
let mut state = State {
quit: false,
position: Point { x: 0, y: 0 },
color: (0, 0, 0),
message: "hello world".to_string(),
};
state.process(Message::ChangeColor(255, 0, 255));
state.process(Message::Echo(String::from("hello world")));
state.process(Message::Move(Point { x: 10, y: 15 }));
state.process(Message::Quit);
assert_eq!(state.color, (255, 0, 255));
assert_eq!(state.position.x, 10);
assert_eq!(state.position.y, 15);
assert_eq!(state.quit, true);
assert_eq!(state.message, "hello world");
}
}
五、string
5.1 strings 1
fn main() {
let answer = current_favorite_color();
println!("My current favorite color is {}", answer);
}
fn current_favorite_color() -> String {
"blue".to_string()
}
5.2 strings 2
/*
// I AM NOT DONE
fn main() {
let word = String::from("green"); // Try not changing this line :)
if is_a_color_word(&word) {
println!("That is a color word I know!");
} else {
println!("That is not a color word I know.");
}
}
fn is_a_color_word(attempt: &str) -> bool {
attempt == "green" || attempt == "blue" || attempt == "red"
}
*/
fn main() {
let word = String::from("green"); // Try not changing this line :)
if is_a_color_word(&word) {
println!("That is a color word I know!");
} else {
println!("That is not a color word I know.");
}
}
fn is_a_color_word(attempt: &str) -> bool {
attempt == "green" || attempt == "blue" || attempt == "red"
}
5.3 strings 3
/*
// I AM NOT DONE
fn trim_me(input: &str) -> String {
// TODO: Remove whitespace from both ends of a string!
???
}
fn compose_me(input: &str) -> String {
// TODO: Add " world!" to the string! There's multiple ways to do this!
???
}
fn replace_me(input: &str) -> String {
// TODO: Replace "cars" in the string with "balloons"!
???
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn trim_a_string() {
assert_eq!(trim_me("Hello! "), "Hello!");
assert_eq!(trim_me(" What's up!"), "What's up!");
assert_eq!(trim_me(" Hola! "), "Hola!");
}
#[test]
fn compose_a_string() {
assert_eq!(compose_me("Hello"), "Hello world!");
assert_eq!(compose_me("Goodbye"), "Goodbye world!");
}
#[test]
fn replace_a_string() {
assert_eq!(replace_me("I think cars are cool"), "I think balloons are cool");
assert_eq!(replace_me("I love to look at cars"), "I love to look at balloons");
}
}
*/
fn trim_me(input: &str) -> String {
// TODO: Remove whitespace from both ends of a string!
input.trim().to_string()
}
fn compose_me(input: &str) -> String {
// TODO: Add " world!" to the string! There's multiple ways to do this!
input.to_owned() + " world!"
}
fn replace_me(input: &str) -> String {
// TODO: Replace "cars" in the string with "balloons"!
input.replace("cars", "balloons")
}
5.4 strings 4
/*
// strings4.rs
//
// Ok, here are a bunch of values-- some are `String`s, some are `&str`s. Your
// task is to call one of these two functions on each value depending on what
// you think each value is. That is, add either `string_slice` or `string`
// before the parentheses on each line. If you're right, it will compile!
//
// No hints this time!
// I AM NOT DONE
fn string_slice(arg: &str) {
println!("{}", arg);
}
fn string(arg: String) {
println!("{}", arg);
}
fn main() {
???("blue");
???("red".to_string());
???(String::from("hi"));
???("rust is fun!".to_owned());
???("nice weather".into());
???(format!("Interpolation {}", "Station"));
???(&String::from("abc")[0..1]);
???(" hello there ".trim());
???("Happy Monday!".to_string().replace("Mon", "Tues"));
???("mY sHiFt KeY iS sTiCkY".to_lowercase());
}
*/
fn string_slice(arg: &str) {
println!("{}", arg);
}
fn string(arg: String) {
println!("{}", arg);
}
fn main() {
string_slice("blue");
string("red".to_string());
string(String::from("hi"));
string("rust is fun!".to_owned());
string("nice weather".into());
string(format!("Interpolation {}", "Station"));
string_slice(&String::from("abc")[0..1]);
string_slice(" hello there ".trim());
string("Happy Monday!".to_string().replace("Mon", "Tues"));
string("mY sHiFt KeY iS sTiCkY".to_lowercase());
}
六、module
6.1 module 1
/*
// modules1.rs
//
// Execute `rustlings hint modules1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
mod sausage_factory {
// Don't let anybody outside of this module see this!
fn get_secret_recipe() -> String {
String::from("Ginger")
}
fn make_sausage() {
get_secret_recipe();
println!("sausage!");
}
}
fn main() {
sausage_factory::make_sausage();
}
*/
mod sausage_factory {
// Don't let anybody outside of this module see this!
fn get_secret_recipe() -> String {
String::from("Ginger")
}
pub fn make_sausage() {
get_secret_recipe();
println!("sausage!");
}
}
fn main() {
sausage_factory::make_sausage();
}
6.2 module 2
/*
// modules2.rs
//
// You can bring module paths into scopes and provide new names for them with
// the 'use' and 'as' keywords. Fix these 'use' statements to make the code
// compile.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint modules2` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
mod delicious_snacks {
// TODO: Fix these use statements
use self::fruits::PEAR as ???
use self::veggies::CUCUMBER as ???
mod fruits {
pub const PEAR: &'static str = "Pear";
pub const APPLE: &'static str = "Apple";
}
mod veggies {
pub const CUCUMBER: &'static str = "Cucumber";
pub const CARROT: &'static str = "Carrot";
}
}
fn main() {
println!(
"favorite snacks: {} and {}",
delicious_snacks::fruit,
delicious_snacks::veggie
);
}
*/
mod delicious_snacks {
// TODO: Fix these use statements
pub use self::fruits::PEAR as fruit;
pub use self::veggies::CUCUMBER as veggie;
mod fruits {
pub const PEAR: &'static str = "Pear";
pub const APPLE: &'static str = "Apple";
}
mod veggies {
pub const CUCUMBER: &'static str = "Cucumber";
pub const CARROT: &'static str = "Carrot";
}
}
fn main() {
println!(
"favorite snacks: {} and {}",
delicious_snacks::fruit,
delicious_snacks::veggie
);
}
6.3 module 3
/*
// modules3.rs
//
// You can use the 'use' keyword to bring module paths from modules from
// anywhere and especially from the Rust standard library into your scope. Bring
// SystemTime and UNIX_EPOCH from the std::time module. Bonus style points if
// you can do it with one line!
//
// Execute `rustlings hint modules3` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
// TODO: Complete this use statement
use ???
fn main() {
match SystemTime::now().duration_since(UNIX_EPOCH) {
Ok(n) => println!("1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC was {} seconds ago!", n.as_secs()),
Err(_) => panic!("SystemTime before UNIX EPOCH!"),
}
}
*/
use std::time::{SystemTime, UNIX_EPOCH};
fn main() {
match SystemTime::now().duration_since(UNIX_EPOCH) {
Ok(n) => println!("1970-01-01 00:00:00 UTC was {} seconds ago!", n.as_secs()),
Err(_) => panic!("SystemTime before UNIX EPOCH!"),
}
}
七、hashmap
7.1 hashmap 1
/*
// hashmaps1.rs
//
// A basket of fruits in the form of a hash map needs to be defined. The key
// represents the name of the fruit and the value represents how many of that
// particular fruit is in the basket. You have to put at least three different
// types of fruits (e.g apple, banana, mango) in the basket and the total count
// of all the fruits should be at least five.
//
// Make me compile and pass the tests!
//
// Execute `rustlings hint hashmaps1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
use std::collections::HashMap;
fn fruit_basket() -> HashMap<String, u32> {
let mut basket = // TODO: declare your hash map here.
// Two bananas are already given for you :)
basket.insert(String::from("banana"), 2);
// TODO: Put more fruits in your basket here.
basket
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn at_least_three_types_of_fruits() {
let basket = fruit_basket();
assert!(basket.len() >= 3);
}
#[test]
fn at_least_five_fruits() {
let basket = fruit_basket();
assert!(basket.values().sum::<u32>() >= 5);
}
}
*/
use std::collections::HashMap;
fn fruit_basket() -> HashMap<String, u32> {
let mut basket = HashMap::new();
// Two bananas are already given for you :)
basket.insert(String::from("banana"), 2);
basket.insert(String::from("apple"), 2);
basket.insert(String::from("watermelon"), 1);
basket
}
7.2 hashmap 2
/*
// hashmaps2.rs
//
// We're collecting different fruits to bake a delicious fruit cake. For this,
// we have a basket, which we'll represent in the form of a hash map. The key
// represents the name of each fruit we collect and the value represents how
// many of that particular fruit we have collected. Three types of fruits -
// Apple (4), Mango (2) and Lychee (5) are already in the basket hash map. You
// must add fruit to the basket so that there is at least one of each kind and
// more than 11 in total - we have a lot of mouths to feed. You are not allowed
// to insert any more of these fruits!
//
// Make me pass the tests!
//
// Execute `rustlings hint hashmaps2` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
use std::collections::HashMap;
#[derive(Hash, PartialEq, Eq)]
enum Fruit {
Apple,
Banana,
Mango,
Lychee,
Pineapple,
}
fn fruit_basket(basket: &mut HashMap<Fruit, u32>) {
let fruit_kinds = vec![
Fruit::Apple,
Fruit::Banana,
Fruit::Mango,
Fruit::Lychee,
Fruit::Pineapple,
];
for fruit in fruit_kinds {
// TODO: Insert new fruits if they are not already present in the
// basket. Note that you are not allowed to put any type of fruit that's
// already present!
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
// Don't modify this function!
fn get_fruit_basket() -> HashMap<Fruit, u32> {
let mut basket = HashMap::<Fruit, u32>::new();
basket.insert(Fruit::Apple, 4);
basket.insert(Fruit::Mango, 2);
basket.insert(Fruit::Lychee, 5);
basket
}
#[test]
fn test_given_fruits_are_not_modified() {
let mut basket = get_fruit_basket();
fruit_basket(&mut basket);
assert_eq!(*basket.get(&Fruit::Apple).unwrap(), 4);
assert_eq!(*basket.get(&Fruit::Mango).unwrap(), 2);
assert_eq!(*basket.get(&Fruit::Lychee).unwrap(), 5);
}
#[test]
fn at_least_five_types_of_fruits() {
let mut basket = get_fruit_basket();
fruit_basket(&mut basket);
let count_fruit_kinds = basket.len();
assert!(count_fruit_kinds >= 5);
}
#[test]
fn greater_than_eleven_fruits() {
let mut basket = get_fruit_basket();
fruit_basket(&mut basket);
let count = basket.values().sum::<u32>();
assert!(count > 11);
}
#[test]
fn all_fruit_types_in_basket() {
let mut basket = get_fruit_basket();
fruit_basket(&mut basket);
for amount in basket.values() {
assert_ne!(amount, &0);
}
}
}
*/
fn fruit_basket(basket: &mut HashMap<Fruit, u32>) {
let fruit_kinds = vec![
Fruit::Apple,
Fruit::Banana,
Fruit::Mango,
Fruit::Lychee,
Fruit::Pineapple,
];
for fruit in fruit_kinds {
// TODO: Insert new fruits if they are not already present in the
// basket. Note that you are not allowed to put any type of fruit that's
// already present!
if !basket.contains_key(&fruit) {
basket.insert(fruit, 2);
}
}
}
7.3 hashmap 3
/*
// hashmaps3.rs
//
// A list of scores (one per line) of a soccer match is given. Each line is of
// the form : "<team_1_name>,<team_2_name>,<team_1_goals>,<team_2_goals>"
// Example: England,France,4,2 (England scored 4 goals, France 2).
//
// You have to build a scores table containing the name of the team, goals the
// team scored, and goals the team conceded. One approach to build the scores
// table is to use a Hashmap. The solution is partially written to use a
// Hashmap, complete it to pass the test.
//
// Make me pass the tests!
//
// Execute `rustlings hint hashmaps3` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
use std::collections::HashMap;
// A structure to store the goal details of a team.
struct Team {
goals_scored: u8,
goals_conceded: u8,
}
fn build_scores_table(results: String) -> HashMap<String, Team> {
// The name of the team is the key and its associated struct is the value.
let mut scores: HashMap<String, Team> = HashMap::new();
for r in results.lines() {
let v: Vec<&str> = r.split(',').collect();
let team_1_name = v[0].to_string();
let team_1_score: u8 = v[2].parse().unwrap();
let team_2_name = v[1].to_string();
let team_2_score: u8 = v[3].parse().unwrap();
// TODO: Populate the scores table with details extracted from the
// current line. Keep in mind that goals scored by team_1
// will be the number of goals conceded from team_2, and similarly
// goals scored by team_2 will be the number of goals conceded by
// team_1.
}
scores
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
fn get_results() -> String {
let results = "".to_string()
+ "England,France,4,2\n"
+ "France,Italy,3,1\n"
+ "Poland,Spain,2,0\n"
+ "Germany,England,2,1\n";
results
}
#[test]
fn build_scores() {
let scores = build_scores_table(get_results());
let mut keys: Vec<&String> = scores.keys().collect();
keys.sort();
assert_eq!(
keys,
vec!["England", "France", "Germany", "Italy", "Poland", "Spain"]
);
}
#[test]
fn validate_team_score_1() {
let scores = build_scores_table(get_results());
let team = scores.get("England").unwrap();
assert_eq!(team.goals_scored, 5);
assert_eq!(team.goals_conceded, 4);
}
#[test]
fn validate_team_score_2() {
let scores = build_scores_table(get_results());
let team = scores.get("Spain").unwrap();
assert_eq!(team.goals_scored, 0);
assert_eq!(team.goals_conceded, 2);
}
}
*/
fn build_scores_table(results: String) -> HashMap<String, Team> {
// The name of the team is the key and its associated struct is the value.
let mut scores: HashMap<String, Team> = HashMap::new();
for r in results.lines() {
let v: Vec<&str> = r.split(',').collect();
let team_1_name = v[0].to_string();
let team_1_score: u8 = v[2].parse().unwrap();
let team_2_name = v[1].to_string();
let team_2_score: u8 = v[3].parse().unwrap();
scores
.entry(team_1_name)
.and_modify(|e| {
e.goals_scored += team_1_score;
e.goals_conceded += team_2_score;
})
.or_insert(Team {
goals_scored: team_1_score,
goals_conceded: team_2_score,
});
scores
.entry(team_2_name)
.and_modify(|e| {
e.goals_scored += team_2_score;
e.goals_conceded += team_1_score;
})
.or_insert(Team {
goals_scored: team_2_score,
goals_conceded: team_1_score,
});
// TODO: Populate the scores table with details extracted from the
// current line. Keep in mind that goals scored by team_1
// will be the number of goals conceded from team_2, and similarly
// goals scored by team_2 will be the number of goals conceded by
// team_1.
}
scores
}
八、quiz
8.1 quiz 2
pub enum Command {
Uppercase,
Trim,
Append(usize),
}
mod my_module {
use super::Command;
// TODO: Complete the function signature!
pub fn transformer(input: Vec<(String, Command)>) -> Vec<String> {
// TODO: Complete the output declaration!
let mut output: Vec<String> = vec![];
for (string, command) in input.iter() {
// TODO: Complete the function body. You can do it!
let s = match command {
Command::Uppercase => string.to_uppercase(),
Command::Trim => string.trim().to_string(),
Command::Append(n) => string.to_string() + &"bar".repeat(*n),
};
output.push(s)
}
output
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
// TODO: What do we need to import to have `transformer` in scope?
use super::Command;
use crate::my_module::transformer;
#[test]
fn it_works() {
let output = transformer(vec![
("hello".into(), Command::Uppercase),
(" all roads lead to rome! ".into(), Command::Trim),
("foo".into(), Command::Append(1)),
("bar".into(), Command::Append(5)),
]);
assert_eq!(output[0], "HELLO");
assert_eq!(output[1], "all roads lead to rome!");
assert_eq!(output[2], "foobar");
assert_eq!(output[3], "barbarbarbarbarbar");
}
}
8.2 quiz 3
/*
// quiz3.rs
//
// This quiz tests:
// - Generics
// - Traits
//
// An imaginary magical school has a new report card generation system written
// in Rust! Currently the system only supports creating report cards where the
// student's grade is represented numerically (e.g. 1.0 -> 5.5). However, the
// school also issues alphabetical grades (A+ -> F-) and needs to be able to
// print both types of report card!
//
// Make the necessary code changes in the struct ReportCard and the impl block
// to support alphabetical report cards. Change the Grade in the second test to
// "A+" to show that your changes allow alphabetical grades.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint quiz3` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
pub struct ReportCard {
pub grade: f32,
pub student_name: String,
pub student_age: u8,
}
impl ReportCard {
pub fn print(&self) -> String {
format!("{} ({}) - achieved a grade of {}",
&self.student_name, &self.student_age, &self.grade)
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn generate_numeric_report_card() {
let report_card = ReportCard {
grade: 2.1,
student_name: "Tom Wriggle".to_string(),
student_age: 12,
};
assert_eq!(
report_card.print(),
"Tom Wriggle (12) - achieved a grade of 2.1"
);
}
#[test]
fn generate_alphabetic_report_card() {
// TODO: Make sure to change the grade here after you finish the exercise.
let report_card = ReportCard {
grade: 2.1,
student_name: "Gary Plotter".to_string(),
student_age: 11,
};
assert_eq!(
report_card.print(),
"Gary Plotter (11) - achieved a grade of A+"
);
}
}
*/
use std::fmt::Display;
pub struct ReportCard<T> {
pub grade: T,
pub student_name: String,
pub student_age: u8,
}
impl<T: Display> ReportCard<T> {
pub fn print(&self) -> String {
format!(
"{} ({}) - achieved a grade of {}",
&self.student_name, &self.student_age, &self.grade
)
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn generate_numeric_report_card() {
let report_card = ReportCard {
grade: 2.1,
student_name: "Tom Wriggle".to_string(),
student_age: 12,
};
assert_eq!(
report_card.print(),
"Tom Wriggle (12) - achieved a grade of 2.1"
);
}
#[test]
fn generate_alphabetic_report_card() {
// TODO: Make sure to change the grade here after you finish the exercise.
let report_card = ReportCard {
grade: "A+",
student_name: "Gary Plotter".to_string(),
student_age: 11,
};
assert_eq!(
report_card.print(),
"Gary Plotter (11) - achieved a grade of A+"
);
}
}
九、option
9.1 option 1
// options1.rs
//
// Execute `rustlings hint options1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// This function returns how much icecream there is left in the fridge.
// If it's before 10PM, there's 5 pieces left. At 10PM, someone eats them
// all, so there'll be no more left :(
fn maybe_icecream(time_of_day: u16) -> Option<u16> {
// We use the 24-hour system here, so 10PM is a value of 22 and 12AM is a
// value of 0 The Option output should gracefully handle cases where
// time_of_day > 23.
// TODO: Complete the function body - remember to return an Option!
if time_of_day > 23 {
None
} else if time_of_day < 22 {
Some(5)
} else {
Some(0)
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn check_icecream() {
assert_eq!(maybe_icecream(9), Some(5));
assert_eq!(maybe_icecream(10), Some(5));
assert_eq!(maybe_icecream(23), Some(0));
assert_eq!(maybe_icecream(22), Some(0));
assert_eq!(maybe_icecream(25), None);
}
#[test]
fn raw_value() {
// TODO: Fix this test. How do you get at the value contained in the
// Option?
let icecreams = maybe_icecream(12).unwrap();
assert_eq!(icecreams, 5);
}
}
9.2 option 2
/*
// options2.rs
//
// Execute `rustlings hint options2` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
#[test]
fn simple_option() {
let target = "rustlings";
let optional_target = Some(target);
// TODO: Make this an if let statement whose value is "Some" type
word = optional_target {
assert_eq!(word, target);
}
}
#[test]
fn layered_option() {
let range = 10;
let mut optional_integers: Vec<Option<i8>> = vec![None];
for i in 1..(range + 1) {
optional_integers.push(Some(i));
}
let mut cursor = range;
// TODO: make this a while let statement - remember that vector.pop also
// adds another layer of Option<T>. You can stack `Option<T>`s into
// while let and if let.
integer = optional_integers.pop() {
assert_eq!(integer, cursor);
cursor -= 1;
}
assert_eq!(cursor, 0);
}
}
*/
// options2.rs
//
// Execute `rustlings hint options2` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
#[test]
fn simple_option() {
let target = "rustlings";
let optional_target = Some(target);
// TODO: Make this an if let statement whose value is "Some" type
if let Some(word) = optional_target {
assert_eq!(word, target);
}
}
#[test]
fn layered_option() {
let range = 10;
let mut optional_integers: Vec<Option<i8>> = vec![None];
for i in 1..(range + 1) {
optional_integers.push(Some(i));
}
let mut cursor = range;
// TODO: make this a while let statement - remember that vector.pop also
// adds another layer of Option<T>. You can stack `Option<T>`s into
// while let and if let.
while let Some(integer) = optional_integers.pop().flatten() {
assert_eq!(integer, cursor);
cursor -= 1;
}
assert_eq!(cursor, 0);
}
}
9.3 option 3
/*
// options3.rs
//
// Execute `rustlings hint options3` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
struct Point {
x: i32,
y: i32,
}
fn main() {
let y: Option<Point> = Some(Point { x: 100, y: 200 });
match y {
Some(p) => println!("Co-ordinates are {},{} ", p.x, p.y),
_ => panic!("no match!"),
}
y; // Fix without deleting this line.
}
*/
struct Point {
x: i32,
y: i32,
}
fn main() {
let y: Option<Point> = Some(Point { x: 100, y: 200 });
match y {
Some(ref p) => println!("Co-ordinates are {},{} ", p.x, p.y),
_ => panic!("no match!"),
}
y; // Fix without deleting this line.
}
十、error
10.1 error 1
/*
// errors1.rs
//
// This function refuses to generate text to be printed on a nametag if you pass
// it an empty string. It'd be nicer if it explained what the problem was,
// instead of just sometimes returning `None`. Thankfully, Rust has a similar
// construct to `Result` that can be used to express error conditions. Let's use
// it!
//
// Execute `rustlings hint errors1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
pub fn generate_nametag_text(name: String) -> Option<String> {
if name.is_empty() {
// Empty names aren't allowed.
None
} else {
Some(format!("Hi! My name is {}", name))
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn generates_nametag_text_for_a_nonempty_name() {
assert_eq!(
generate_nametag_text("Beyoncé".into()),
Ok("Hi! My name is Beyoncé".into())
);
}
#[test]
fn explains_why_generating_nametag_text_fails() {
assert_eq!(
generate_nametag_text("".into()),
// Don't change this line
Err("`name` was empty; it must be nonempty.".into())
);
}
}
*/
pub fn generate_nametag_text(name: String) -> Result<String, String> {
if name.is_empty() {
// Empty names aren't allowed.
Err("`name` was empty; it must be nonempty.".into())
} else {
Ok(format!("Hi! My name is {}", name))
}
}
10.2 error 2
/*
// errors2.rs
//
// Say we're writing a game where you can buy items with tokens. All items cost
// 5 tokens, and whenever you purchase items there is a processing fee of 1
// token. A player of the game will type in how many items they want to buy, and
// the `total_cost` function will calculate the total cost of the tokens. Since
// the player typed in the quantity, though, we get it as a string-- and they
// might have typed anything, not just numbers!
//
// Right now, this function isn't handling the error case at all (and isn't
// handling the success case properly either). What we want to do is: if we call
// the `parse` function on a string that is not a number, that function will
// return a `ParseIntError`, and in that case, we want to immediately return
// that error from our function and not try to multiply and add.
//
// There are at least two ways to implement this that are both correct-- but one
// is a lot shorter!
//
// Execute `rustlings hint errors2` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
use std::num::ParseIntError;
pub fn total_cost(item_quantity: &str) -> Result<i32, ParseIntError> {
let processing_fee = 1;
let cost_per_item = 5;
let qty = item_quantity.parse::<i32>();
Ok(qty * cost_per_item + processing_fee)
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn item_quantity_is_a_valid_number() {
assert_eq!(total_cost("34"), Ok(171));
}
#[test]
fn item_quantity_is_an_invalid_number() {
assert_eq!(
total_cost("beep boop").unwrap_err().to_string(),
"invalid digit found in string"
);
}
}
*/
use std::num::ParseIntError;
pub fn total_cost(item_quantity: &str) -> Result<i32, ParseIntError> {
let processing_fee = 1;
let cost_per_item = 5;
let qty = item_quantity.parse::<i32>()?;
Ok(qty * cost_per_item + processing_fee)
}
10.3 error 3
/*
// errors3.rs
//
// This is a program that is trying to use a completed version of the
// `total_cost` function from the previous exercise. It's not working though!
// Why not? What should we do to fix it?
//
// Execute `rustlings hint errors3` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
use std::num::ParseIntError;
fn main() {
let mut tokens = 100;
let pretend_user_input = "8";
let cost = total_cost(pretend_user_input)?;
if cost > tokens {
println!("You can't afford that many!");
} else {
tokens -= cost;
println!("You now have {} tokens.", tokens);
}
}
pub fn total_cost(item_quantity: &str) -> Result<i32, ParseIntError> {
let processing_fee = 1;
let cost_per_item = 5;
let qty = item_quantity.parse::<i32>()?;
Ok(qty * cost_per_item + processing_fee)
}
*/
fn main() -> Result<(), ParseIntError> {
let mut tokens = 100;
let pretend_user_input = "8";
let cost = total_cost(pretend_user_input)?;
if cost > tokens {
println!("You can't afford that many!");
} else {
tokens -= cost;
println!("You now have {} tokens.", tokens);
}
Ok(())
}
10.4 error 5
/*
// errors5.rs
//
// This program uses an altered version of the code from errors4.
//
// This exercise uses some concepts that we won't get to until later in the
// course, like `Box` and the `From` trait. It's not important to understand
// them in detail right now, but you can read ahead if you like. For now, think
// of the `Box<dyn ???>` type as an "I want anything that does ???" type, which,
// given Rust's usual standards for runtime safety, should strike you as
// somewhat lenient!
//
// In short, this particular use case for boxes is for when you want to own a
// value and you care only that it is a type which implements a particular
// trait. To do so, The Box is declared as of type Box<dyn Trait> where Trait is
// the trait the compiler looks for on any value used in that context. For this
// exercise, that context is the potential errors which can be returned in a
// Result.
//
// What can we use to describe both errors? In other words, is there a trait
// which both errors implement?
//
// Execute `rustlings hint errors5` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
use std::error;
use std::fmt;
use std::num::ParseIntError;
// TODO: update the return type of `main()` to make this compile.
fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn ???>> {
let pretend_user_input = "42";
let x: i64 = pretend_user_input.parse()?;
println!("output={:?}", PositiveNonzeroInteger::new(x)?);
Ok(())
}
// Don't change anything below this line.
#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
struct PositiveNonzeroInteger(u64);
#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
enum CreationError {
Negative,
Zero,
}
impl PositiveNonzeroInteger {
fn new(value: i64) -> Result<PositiveNonzeroInteger, CreationError> {
match value {
x if x < 0 => Err(CreationError::Negative),
x if x == 0 => Err(CreationError::Zero),
x => Ok(PositiveNonzeroInteger(x as u64)),
}
}
}
// This is required so that `CreationError` can implement `error::Error`.
impl fmt::Display for CreationError {
fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
let description = match *self {
CreationError::Negative => "number is negative",
CreationError::Zero => "number is zero",
};
f.write_str(description)
}
}
impl error::Error for CreationError {}
*/
use std::error;
use std::error::Error;
use std::fmt;
use std::num::ParseIntError;
// TODO: update the return type of `main()` to make this compile.
fn main() -> Result<(), Box<dyn Error>> {
let pretend_user_input = "42";
let x: i64 = pretend_user_input.parse()?;
println!("output={:?}", PositiveNonzeroInteger::new(x)?);
Ok(())
}
10.5 error 6
/*
// errors6.rs
//
// Using catch-all error types like `Box<dyn error::Error>` isn't recommended
// for library code, where callers might want to make decisions based on the
// error content, instead of printing it out or propagating it further. Here, we
// define a custom error type to make it possible for callers to decide what to
// do next when our function returns an error.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint errors6` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
use std::num::ParseIntError;
// This is a custom error type that we will be using in `parse_pos_nonzero()`.
#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
enum ParsePosNonzeroError {
Creation(CreationError),
ParseInt(ParseIntError),
}
impl ParsePosNonzeroError {
fn from_creation(err: CreationError) -> ParsePosNonzeroError {
ParsePosNonzeroError::Creation(err)
}
// TODO: add another error conversion function here.
// fn from_parseint...
}
fn parse_pos_nonzero(s: &str) -> Result<PositiveNonzeroInteger, ParsePosNonzeroError> {
// TODO: change this to return an appropriate error instead of panicking
// when `parse()` returns an error.
let x: i64 = s.parse().unwrap();
PositiveNonzeroInteger::new(x).map_err(ParsePosNonzeroError::from_creation)
}
// Don't change anything below this line.
#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
struct PositiveNonzeroInteger(u64);
#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
enum CreationError {
Negative,
Zero,
}
impl PositiveNonzeroInteger {
fn new(value: i64) -> Result<PositiveNonzeroInteger, CreationError> {
match value {
x if x < 0 => Err(CreationError::Negative),
x if x == 0 => Err(CreationError::Zero),
x => Ok(PositiveNonzeroInteger(x as u64)),
}
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod test {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn test_parse_error() {
// We can't construct a ParseIntError, so we have to pattern match.
assert!(matches!(
parse_pos_nonzero("not a number"),
Err(ParsePosNonzeroError::ParseInt(_))
));
}
#[test]
fn test_negative() {
assert_eq!(
parse_pos_nonzero("-555"),
Err(ParsePosNonzeroError::Creation(CreationError::Negative))
);
}
#[test]
fn test_zero() {
assert_eq!(
parse_pos_nonzero("0"),
Err(ParsePosNonzeroError::Creation(CreationError::Zero))
);
}
#[test]
fn test_positive() {
let x = PositiveNonzeroInteger::new(42);
assert!(x.is_ok());
assert_eq!(parse_pos_nonzero("42"), Ok(x.unwrap()));
}
}
*/
use std::num::ParseIntError;
// This is a custom error type that we will be using in `parse_pos_nonzero()`.
#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
enum ParsePosNonzeroError {
Creation(CreationError),
ParseInt(ParseIntError),
}
impl ParsePosNonzeroError {
fn from_creation(err: CreationError) -> ParsePosNonzeroError {
ParsePosNonzeroError::Creation(err)
}
// TODO: add another error conversion function here.
fn from_parseint(err: ParseIntError) -> ParsePosNonzeroError {
ParsePosNonzeroError::ParseInt(err)
}
}
fn parse_pos_nonzero(s: &str) -> Result<PositiveNonzeroInteger, ParsePosNonzeroError> {
// TODO: change this to return an appropriate error instead of panicking
// when `parse()` returns an error.
let x: i64 = s.parse().map_err(ParsePosNonzeroError::from_parseint)?;
PositiveNonzeroInteger::new(x).map_err(ParsePosNonzeroError::from_creation)
}
// Don't change anything below this line.
#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
struct PositiveNonzeroInteger(u64);
#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
enum CreationError {
Negative,
Zero,
}
impl PositiveNonzeroInteger {
fn new(value: i64) -> Result<PositiveNonzeroInteger, CreationError> {
match value {
x if x < 0 => Err(CreationError::Negative),
x if x == 0 => Err(CreationError::Zero),
x => Ok(PositiveNonzeroInteger(x as u64)),
}
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod test {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn test_parse_error() {
// We can't construct a ParseIntError, so we have to pattern match.
assert!(matches!(
parse_pos_nonzero("not a number"),
Err(ParsePosNonzeroError::ParseInt(_))
));
}
#[test]
fn test_negative() {
assert_eq!(
parse_pos_nonzero("-555"),
Err(ParsePosNonzeroError::Creation(CreationError::Negative))
);
}
#[test]
fn test_zero() {
assert_eq!(
parse_pos_nonzero("0"),
Err(ParsePosNonzeroError::Creation(CreationError::Zero))
);
}
#[test]
fn test_positive() {
let x = PositiveNonzeroInteger::new(42);
assert!(x.is_ok());
assert_eq!(parse_pos_nonzero("42"), Ok(x.unwrap()));
}
}
十一、generics
11.1 generics 2
/*
// generics2.rs
//
// This powerful wrapper provides the ability to store a positive integer value.
// Rewrite it using generics so that it supports wrapping ANY type.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint generics2` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
struct Wrapper {
value: u32,
}
impl Wrapper {
pub fn new(value: u32) -> Self {
Wrapper { value }
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn store_u32_in_wrapper() {
assert_eq!(Wrapper::new(42).value, 42);
}
#[test]
fn store_str_in_wrapper() {
assert_eq!(Wrapper::new("Foo").value, "Foo");
}
}
*/
struct Wrapper<T> {
value: T,
}
impl<T> Wrapper<T> {
pub fn new(value: T) -> Self {
Wrapper { value }
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn store_u32_in_wrapper() {
assert_eq!(Wrapper::new(42).value, 42);
}
#[test]
fn store_str_in_wrapper() {
assert_eq!(Wrapper::new("Foo").value, "Foo");
}
}
十二、trait
12.1 trait 1
/*
// traits1.rs
//
// Time to implement some traits! Your task is to implement the trait
// `AppendBar` for the type `String`. The trait AppendBar has only one function,
// which appends "Bar" to any object implementing this trait.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint traits1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
trait AppendBar {
fn append_bar(self) -> Self;
}
impl AppendBar for String {
// TODO: Implement `AppendBar` for type `String`.
}
fn main() {
let s = String::from("Foo");
let s = s.append_bar();
println!("s: {}", s);
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn is_foo_bar() {
assert_eq!(String::from("Foo").append_bar(), String::from("FooBar"));
}
#[test]
fn is_bar_bar() {
assert_eq!(
String::from("").append_bar().append_bar(),
String::from("BarBar")
);
}
}
*/
trait AppendBar {
fn append_bar(self) -> Self;
}
impl AppendBar for String {
// TODO: Implement `AppendBar` for type `String`.
fn append_bar(self) -> Self {
format!("{}Bar", self)
}
}
11.2 trait 2
/*
// traits2.rs
//
// Your task is to implement the trait `AppendBar` for a vector of strings. To
// implement this trait, consider for a moment what it means to 'append "Bar"'
// to a vector of strings.
//
// No boiler plate code this time, you can do this!
//
// Execute `rustlings hint traits2` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
trait AppendBar {
fn append_bar(self) -> Self;
}
// TODO: Implement trait `AppendBar` for a vector of strings.
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn is_vec_pop_eq_bar() {
let mut foo = vec![String::from("Foo")].append_bar();
assert_eq!(foo.pop().unwrap(), String::from("Bar"));
assert_eq!(foo.pop().unwrap(), String::from("Foo"));
}
}
*/
trait AppendBar {
fn append_bar(self) -> Self;
}
impl AppendBar for Vec<String> {
fn append_bar(mut self) -> Vec<String> {
self.push("Bar".to_string());
self
}
}
11.3 trait 3
/*
// traits3.rs
//
// Your task is to implement the Licensed trait for both structures and have
// them return the same information without writing the same function twice.
//
// Consider what you can add to the Licensed trait.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint traits3` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
pub trait Licensed {
fn licensing_info(&self) -> String;
}
struct SomeSoftware {
version_number: i32,
}
struct OtherSoftware {
version_number: String,
}
impl Licensed for SomeSoftware {} // Don't edit this line
impl Licensed for OtherSoftware {} // Don't edit this line
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn is_licensing_info_the_same() {
let licensing_info = String::from("Some information");
let some_software = SomeSoftware { version_number: 1 };
let other_software = OtherSoftware {
version_number: "v2.0.0".to_string(),
};
assert_eq!(some_software.licensing_info(), licensing_info);
assert_eq!(other_software.licensing_info(), licensing_info);
}
}
*/
pub trait Licensed {
fn licensing_info(&self) -> String {
String::from("Some information")
}
}
struct SomeSoftware {
version_number: i32,
}
struct OtherSoftware {
version_number: String,
}
impl Licensed for SomeSoftware {} // Don't edit this line
impl Licensed for OtherSoftware {} // Don't edit this line
11.4 trait 4
/*
// traits4.rs
//
// Your task is to replace the '??' sections so the code compiles.
//
// Don't change any line other than the marked one.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint traits4` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
pub trait Licensed {
fn licensing_info(&self) -> String {
"some information".to_string()
}
}
struct SomeSoftware {}
struct OtherSoftware {}
impl Licensed for SomeSoftware {}
impl Licensed for OtherSoftware {}
// YOU MAY ONLY CHANGE THE NEXT LINE
fn compare_license_types(software: ??, software_two: ??) -> bool {
software.licensing_info() == software_two.licensing_info()
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn compare_license_information() {
let some_software = SomeSoftware {};
let other_software = OtherSoftware {};
assert!(compare_license_types(some_software, other_software));
}
#[test]
fn compare_license_information_backwards() {
let some_software = SomeSoftware {};
let other_software = OtherSoftware {};
assert!(compare_license_types(other_software, some_software));
}
}
*/
pub trait Licensed {
fn licensing_info(&self) -> String {
"some information".to_string()
}
}
struct SomeSoftware {}
struct OtherSoftware {}
impl Licensed for SomeSoftware {}
impl Licensed for OtherSoftware {}
// YOU MAY ONLY CHANGE THE NEXT LINE
fn compare_license_types(software: impl Licensed, software_two: impl Licensed) -> bool {
software.licensing_info() == software_two.licensing_info()
}
11.5 trait 5
/*
// traits5.rs
//
// Your task is to replace the '??' sections so the code compiles.
//
// Don't change any line other than the marked one.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint traits5` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
pub trait SomeTrait {
fn some_function(&self) -> bool {
true
}
}
pub trait OtherTrait {
fn other_function(&self) -> bool {
true
}
}
struct SomeStruct {}
struct OtherStruct {}
impl SomeTrait for SomeStruct {}
impl OtherTrait for SomeStruct {}
impl SomeTrait for OtherStruct {}
impl OtherTrait for OtherStruct {}
// YOU MAY ONLY CHANGE THE NEXT LINE
fn some_func(item: ??) -> bool {
item.some_function() && item.other_function()
}
fn main() {
some_func(SomeStruct {});
some_func(OtherStruct {});
}
*/
pub trait SomeTrait {
fn some_function(&self) -> bool {
true
}
}
pub trait OtherTrait {
fn other_function(&self) -> bool {
true
}
}
struct SomeStruct {}
struct OtherStruct {}
impl SomeTrait for SomeStruct {}
impl OtherTrait for SomeStruct {}
impl SomeTrait for OtherStruct {}
impl OtherTrait for OtherStruct {}
// YOU MAY ONLY CHANGE THE NEXT LINE
fn some_func<T>(item: T) -> bool
where
T: SomeTrait + OtherTrait,
{
item.some_function() && item.other_function()
}
fn main() {
some_func(SomeStruct {});
some_func(OtherStruct {});
}
十三、lifetime
13.1 lifetime 1
/*
// lifetimes1.rs
//
// The Rust compiler needs to know how to check whether supplied references are
// valid, so that it can let the programmer know if a reference is at risk of
// going out of scope before it is used. Remember, references are borrows and do
// not own their own data. What if their owner goes out of scope?
//
// Execute `rustlings hint lifetimes1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
fn longest(x: &str, y: &str) -> &str {
if x.len() > y.len() {
x
} else {
y
}
}
fn main() {
let string1 = String::from("abcd");
let string2 = "xyz";
let result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2);
println!("The longest string is '{}'", result);
}
*/
fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str {
if x.len() > y.len() {
x
} else {
y
}
}
fn main() {
let string1 = String::from("abcd");
let string2 = "xyz";
let result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2);
println!("The longest string is '{}'", result);
}
13.2 lifetime 2
/*
// lifetimes2.rs
//
// So if the compiler is just validating the references passed to the annotated
// parameters and the return type, what do we need to change?
//
// Execute `rustlings hint lifetimes2` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str {
if x.len() > y.len() {
x
} else {
y
}
}
fn main() {
let string1 = String::from("long string is long");
let result;
{
let string2 = String::from("xyz");
result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2.as_str());
}
println!("The longest string is '{}'", result);
}
*/
fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) -> &'a str {
if x.len() > y.len() {
x
} else {
y
}
}
fn main() {
let string1 = String::from("long string is long");
let result;
let string2 = String::from("xyz");
result = longest(string1.as_str(), string2.as_str());
println!("The longest string is '{}'", result);
}
11.3 lifetime 3
/*
// lifetimes3.rs
//
// Lifetimes are also needed when structs hold references.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint lifetimes3` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
struct Book {
author: &str,
title: &str,
}
fn main() {
let name = String::from("Jill Smith");
let title = String::from("Fish Flying");
let book = Book { author: &name, title: &title };
println!("{} by {}", book.title, book.author);
}
*/
struct Book<'a> {
author: &'a str,
title: &'a str,
}
fn main() {
let name = String::from("Jill Smith");
let title = String::from("Fish Flying");
let book = Book { author: &name, title: &title };
println!("{} by {}", book.title, book.author);
}
十四、test
14.1 test 1
/*
// tests1.rs
//
// Tests are important to ensure that your code does what you think it should
// do. Tests can be run on this file with the following command: rustlings run
// tests1
//
// This test has a problem with it -- make the test compile! Make the test pass!
// Make the test fail!
//
// Execute `rustlings hint tests1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
#[test]
fn you_can_assert() {
assert!();
}
}
*/
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
#[test]
fn you_can_assert() {
assert!(1 == 1);
}
}
14.2 test 2
/*
// tests2.rs
//
// This test has a problem with it -- make the test compile! Make the test pass!
// Make the test fail!
//
// Execute `rustlings hint tests2` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
#[test]
fn you_can_assert_eq() {
assert_eq!();
}
}
*/
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
#[test]
fn you_can_assert_eq() {
assert_eq!(1, 1);
}
}
14.3 test 3
/*
// tests3.rs
//
// This test isn't testing our function -- make it do that in such a way that
// the test passes. Then write a second test that tests whether we get the
// result we expect to get when we call `is_even(5)`.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint tests3` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
pub fn is_even(num: i32) -> bool {
num % 2 == 0
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn is_true_when_even() {
assert!();
}
#[test]
fn is_false_when_odd() {
assert!();
}
}
*/
pub fn is_even(num: i32) -> bool {
num % 2 == 0
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn is_true_when_even() {
assert!(is_even(2) == true);
}
#[test]
fn is_false_when_odd() {
assert!(is_even(1) == false);
}
}
14.4 test 4
/*
// tests4.rs
//
// Make sure that we're testing for the correct conditions!
//
// Execute `rustlings hint tests4` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
struct Rectangle {
width: i32,
height: i32
}
impl Rectangle {
// Only change the test functions themselves
pub fn new(width: i32, height: i32) -> Self {
if width <= 0 || height <= 0 {
panic!("Rectangle width and height cannot be negative!")
}
Rectangle {width, height}
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn correct_width_and_height() {
// This test should check if the rectangle is the size that we pass into its constructor
let rect = Rectangle::new(10, 20);
assert_eq!(???, 10); // check width
assert_eq!(???, 20); // check height
}
#[test]
fn negative_width() {
// This test should check if program panics when we try to create rectangle with negative width
let _rect = Rectangle::new(-10, 10);
}
#[test]
fn negative_height() {
// This test should check if program panics when we try to create rectangle with negative height
let _rect = Rectangle::new(10, -10);
}
}
*/
struct Rectangle {
width: i32,
height: i32,
}
impl Rectangle {
// Only change the test functions themselves
pub fn new(width: i32, height: i32) -> Self {
if width <= 0 || height <= 0 {
panic!("Rectangle width and height cannot be negative!")
}
Rectangle { width, height }
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn correct_width_and_height() {
// This test should check if the rectangle is the size that we pass into its constructor
let rect = Rectangle::new(10, 20);
assert_eq!(rect.width, 10); // check width
assert_eq!(rect.height, 20); // check height
}
#[test]
#[should_panic]
fn negative_width() {
// This test should check if program panics when we try to create rectangle with negative width
let _rect = Rectangle::new(-10, 10);
}
#[test]
#[should_panic]
fn negative_height() {
// This test should check if program panics when we try to create rectangle with negative height
let _rect = Rectangle::new(10, -10);
}
}
14.5 test 5
/*
// tests5.rs
//
// An `unsafe` in Rust serves as a contract.
//
// When `unsafe` is marked on an item declaration, such as a function,
// a trait or so on, it declares a contract alongside it. However,
// the content of the contract cannot be expressed only by a single keyword.
// Hence, its your responsibility to manually state it in the `# Safety`
// section of your documentation comment on the item.
//
// When `unsafe` is marked on a code block enclosed by curly braces,
// it declares an observance of some contract, such as the validity of some
// pointer parameter, the ownership of some memory address. However, like
// the text above, you still need to state how the contract is observed in
// the comment on the code block.
//
// NOTE: All the comments are for the readability and the maintainability of
// your code, while the Rust compiler hands its trust of soundness of your
// code to yourself! If you cannot prove the memory safety and soundness of
// your own code, take a step back and use safe code instead!
//
// Execute `rustlings hint tests5` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
/// # Safety
///
/// The `address` must contain a mutable reference to a valid `u32` value.
unsafe fn modify_by_address(address: usize) {
// TODO: Fill your safety notice of the code block below to match your
// code's behavior and the contract of this function. You may use the
// comment of the test below as your format reference.
unsafe {
todo!("Your code goes here")
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn test_success() {
let mut t: u32 = 0x12345678;
// SAFETY: The address is guaranteed to be valid and contains
// a unique reference to a `u32` local variable.
unsafe { modify_by_address(&mut t as *mut u32 as usize) };
assert!(t == 0xAABBCCDD);
}
}
*/
unsafe fn modify_by_address(address: usize) {
// TODO: Fill your safety notice of the code block below to match your
// code's behavior and the contract of this function. You may use the
// comment of the test below as your format reference.
unsafe { *(address as *mut u32) = 0xAABBCCDD }
}
14.6 test 6
/*
// tests6.rs
//
// In this example we take a shallow dive into the Rust standard library's
// unsafe functions. Fix all the question marks and todos to make the test
// pass.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint tests6` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
struct Foo {
a: u128,
b: Option<String>,
}
/// # Safety
///
/// The `ptr` must contain an owned box of `Foo`.
unsafe fn raw_pointer_to_box(ptr: *mut Foo) -> Box<Foo> {
// SAFETY: The `ptr` contains an owned box of `Foo` by contract. We
// simply reconstruct the box from that pointer.
let mut ret: Box<Foo> = unsafe { ??? };
todo!("The rest of the code goes here")
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
use std::time::Instant;
#[test]
fn test_success() {
let data = Box::new(Foo { a: 1, b: None });
let ptr_1 = &data.a as *const u128 as usize;
// SAFETY: We pass an owned box of `Foo`.
let ret = unsafe { raw_pointer_to_box(Box::into_raw(data)) };
let ptr_2 = &ret.a as *const u128 as usize;
assert!(ptr_1 == ptr_2);
assert!(ret.b == Some("hello".to_owned()));
}
}
*/
unsafe fn raw_pointer_to_box(ptr: *mut Foo) -> Box<Foo> {
// SAFETY: The `ptr` contains an owned box of `Foo` by contract. We
// simply reconstruct the box from that pointer.
let mut ret: Box<Foo> = unsafe { Box::from_raw(ptr) };
ret.b = Some(String::from("hello"));
ret
}
14.7 test 7
/*
// tests7.rs
//
// When building packages, some dependencies can neither be imported in
// `Cargo.toml` nor be directly linked; some preprocesses varies from code
// generation to set-up package-specific configurations.
//
// Cargo does not aim to replace other build tools, but it does integrate
// with them with custom build scripts called `build.rs`. This file is
// usually placed in the root of the project, while in this case the same
// directory of this exercise.
//
// It can be used to:
//
// - Building a bundled C library.
// - Finding a C library on the host system.
// - Generating a Rust module from a specification.
// - Performing any platform-specific configuration needed for the crate.
//
// When setting up configurations, we can `println!` in the build script
// to tell Cargo to follow some instructions. The generic format is:
//
// println!("cargo:{}", your_command_in_string);
//
// Please see the official Cargo book about build scripts for more
// information:
// https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/build-scripts.html
//
// In this exercise, we look for an environment variable and expect it to
// fall in a range. You can look into the testcase to find out the details.
//
// You should NOT modify this file. Modify `build.rs` in the same directory
// to pass this exercise.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint tests7` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
fn main() {}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn test_success() {
let timestamp = std::time::SystemTime::now()
.duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH)
.unwrap()
.as_secs();
let s = std::env::var("TEST_FOO").unwrap();
let e: u64 = s.parse().unwrap();
assert!(timestamp >= e && timestamp < e + 10);
}
}
*/
// build.rs as below:
fn main() {
let timestamp = std::time::SystemTime::now().duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH).unwrap().as_secs();
// std::env::set_var("TEST_FOO", timestamp.to_string());
println!("cargo:rustc-env=TEST_FOO={}", timestamp.to_string());
println!("cargo:rustc-cfg=feature=\"pass\"");
}
14.8 test 8
/*
// tests8.rs
//
// This execrise shares `build.rs` with the previous exercise.
// You need to add some code to `build.rs` to make both this exercise and
// the previous one work.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint tests8` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
fn main() {}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn test_success() {
#[cfg(feature = "pass")]
return;
panic!("no cfg set");
}
}
*/
// build.rs as below:
fn main() {
let timestamp = std::time::SystemTime::now().duration_since(std::time::UNIX_EPOCH).unwrap().as_secs();
// std::env::set_var("TEST_FOO", timestamp.to_string());
println!("cargo:rustc-env=TEST_FOO={}", timestamp.to_string());
println!("cargo:rustc-cfg=feature=\"pass\"");
}
14.9 test 9
/*
// tests9.rs
//
// Rust is highly capable of sharing FFI interfaces with C/C++ and other statically compiled
// languages, and it can even link within the code itself! It makes it through the extern
// block, just like the code below.
//
// The short string after the `extern` keyword indicates which ABI the externally imported
// function would follow. In this exercise, "Rust" is used, while other variants exists like
// "C" for standard C ABI, "stdcall" for the Windows ABI.
//
// The externally imported functions are declared in the extern blocks, with a semicolon to
// mark the end of signature instead of curly braces. Some attributes can be applied to those
// function declarations to modify the linking behavior, such as #[link_name = ".."] to
// modify the actual symbol names.
//
// If you want to export your symbol to the linking environment, the `extern` keyword can
// also be marked before a function definition with the same ABI string note. The default ABI
// for Rust functions is literally "Rust", so if you want to link against pure Rust functions,
// the whole extern term can be omitted.
//
// Rust mangles symbols by default, just like C++ does. To suppress this behavior and make
// those functions addressable by name, the attribute #[no_mangle] can be applied.
//
// In this exercise, your task is to make the testcase able to call the `my_demo_function` in
// module Foo. the `my_demo_function_alias` is an alias for `my_demo_function`, so the two
// line of code in the testcase should call the same function.
//
// You should NOT modify any existing code except for adding two lines of attributes.
// I AM NOT DONE
extern "Rust" {
fn my_demo_function(a: u32) -> u32;
fn my_demo_function_alias(a: u32) -> u32;
}
mod Foo {
// No `extern` equals `extern "Rust"`.
fn my_demo_function(a: u32) -> u32 {
a
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn test_success() {
// The externally imported functions are UNSAFE by default
// because of untrusted source of other languages. You may
// wrap them in safe Rust APIs to ease the burden of callers.
//
// SAFETY: We know those functions are aliases of a safe
// Rust function.
unsafe {
my_demo_function(123);
my_demo_function_alias(456);
}
}
}
*/
extern "Rust" {
#[no_mangle]
fn my_demo_function(a: u32) -> u32;
#[no_mangle]
#[link_name = "my_demo_function"]
fn my_demo_function_alias(a: u32) -> u32;
}
mod Foo {
// No `extern` equals `extern "Rust"`.
#[no_mangle]
fn my_demo_function(a: u32) -> u32 {
a
}
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn test_success() {
// The externally imported functions are UNSAFE by default
// because of untrusted source of other languages. You may
// wrap them in safe Rust APIs to ease the burden of callers.
//
// SAFETY: We know those functions are aliases of a safe
// Rust function.
unsafe {
my_demo_function(123);
my_demo_function_alias(456);
}
}
}
十五、iterator
15.1 iterator 1
/*
// iterators1.rs
//
// When performing operations on elements within a collection, iterators are
// essential. This module helps you get familiar with the structure of using an
// iterator and how to go through elements within an iterable collection.
//
// Make me compile by filling in the `???`s
//
// Execute `rustlings hint iterators1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
fn main() {
let my_fav_fruits = vec!["banana", "custard apple", "avocado", "peach", "raspberry"];
let mut my_iterable_fav_fruits = ???; // TODO: Step 1
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), Some(&"banana"));
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), ???); // TODO: Step 2
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), Some(&"avocado"));
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), ???); // TODO: Step 3
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), Some(&"raspberry"));
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), ???); // TODO: Step 4
}
*/
fn main() {
let my_fav_fruits = vec!["banana", "custard apple", "avocado", "peach", "raspberry"];
let mut my_iterable_fav_fruits = my_fav_fruits.iter(); // TODO: Step 1
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), Some(&"banana"));
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), Some(&"custard apple")); // TODO: Step 2
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), Some(&"avocado"));
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), Some(&"peach")); // TODO: Step 3
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), Some(&"raspberry"));
assert_eq!(my_iterable_fav_fruits.next(), None) // TODO: Step 4
}
15.2 iterator 2
/*
// iterators2.rs
//
// In this exercise, you'll learn some of the unique advantages that iterators
// can offer. Follow the steps to complete the exercise.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint iterators2` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
// Step 1.
// Complete the `capitalize_first` function.
// "hello" -> "Hello"
pub fn capitalize_first(input: &str) -> String {
let mut c = input.chars();
match c.next() {
None => String::new(),
Some(first) => ???,
}
}
// Step 2.
// Apply the `capitalize_first` function to a slice of string slices.
// Return a vector of strings.
// ["hello", "world"] -> ["Hello", "World"]
pub fn capitalize_words_vector(words: &[&str]) -> Vec<String> {
vec![]
}
// Step 3.
// Apply the `capitalize_first` function again to a slice of string slices.
// Return a single string.
// ["hello", " ", "world"] -> "Hello World"
pub fn capitalize_words_string(words: &[&str]) -> String {
String::new()
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn test_success() {
assert_eq!(capitalize_first("hello"), "Hello");
}
#[test]
fn test_empty() {
assert_eq!(capitalize_first(""), "");
}
#[test]
fn test_iterate_string_vec() {
let words = vec!["hello", "world"];
assert_eq!(capitalize_words_vector(&words), ["Hello", "World"]);
}
#[test]
fn test_iterate_into_string() {
let words = vec!["hello", " ", "world"];
assert_eq!(capitalize_words_string(&words), "Hello World");
}
}
*/
// Step 1.
// Complete the `capitalize_first` function.
// "hello" -> "Hello"
pub fn capitalize_first(input: &str) -> String {
let mut c = input.chars();
match c.next() {
None => String::new(),
Some(first) => first.to_uppercase().to_string() + c.as_str(),
}
}
// Step 2.
// Apply the `capitalize_first` function to a slice of string slices.
// Return a vector of strings.
// ["hello", "world"] -> ["Hello", "World"]
pub fn capitalize_words_vector(words: &[&str]) -> Vec<String> {
words.iter().map(|w| capitalize_first(w)).collect()
}
// Step 3.
// Apply the `capitalize_first` function again to a slice of string slices.
// Return a single string.
// ["hello", " ", "world"] -> "Hello World"
pub fn capitalize_words_string(words: &[&str]) -> String {
words.iter().map(|x| capitalize_first(x)).collect()
}
15.3 iterator 3
/*
// iterators3.rs
//
// This is a bigger exercise than most of the others! You can do it! Here is
// your mission, should you choose to accept it:
// 1. Complete the divide function to get the first four tests to pass.
// 2. Get the remaining tests to pass by completing the result_with_list and
// list_of_results functions.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint iterators3` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
pub enum DivisionError {
NotDivisible(NotDivisibleError),
DivideByZero,
}
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
pub struct NotDivisibleError {
dividend: i32,
divisor: i32,
}
// Calculate `a` divided by `b` if `a` is evenly divisible by `b`.
// Otherwise, return a suitable error.
pub fn divide(a: i32, b: i32) -> Result<i32, DivisionError> {
todo!();
}
// Complete the function and return a value of the correct type so the test
// passes.
// Desired output: Ok([1, 11, 1426, 3])
fn result_with_list() -> () {
let numbers = vec![27, 297, 38502, 81];
let division_results = numbers.into_iter().map(|n| divide(n, 27));
}
// Complete the function and return a value of the correct type so the test
// passes.
// Desired output: [Ok(1), Ok(11), Ok(1426), Ok(3)]
fn list_of_results() -> () {
let numbers = vec![27, 297, 38502, 81];
let division_results = numbers.into_iter().map(|n| divide(n, 27));
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn test_success() {
assert_eq!(divide(81, 9), Ok(9));
}
#[test]
fn test_not_divisible() {
assert_eq!(
divide(81, 6),
Err(DivisionError::NotDivisible(NotDivisibleError {
dividend: 81,
divisor: 6
}))
);
}
#[test]
fn test_divide_by_0() {
assert_eq!(divide(81, 0), Err(DivisionError::DivideByZero));
}
#[test]
fn test_divide_0_by_something() {
assert_eq!(divide(0, 81), Ok(0));
}
#[test]
fn test_result_with_list() {
assert_eq!(format!("{:?}", result_with_list()), "Ok([1, 11, 1426, 3])");
}
#[test]
fn test_list_of_results() {
assert_eq!(
format!("{:?}", list_of_results()),
"[Ok(1), Ok(11), Ok(1426), Ok(3)]"
);
}
}
*/
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
pub enum DivisionError {
NotDivisible(NotDivisibleError),
DivideByZero,
}
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq, Eq)]
pub struct NotDivisibleError {
dividend: i32,
divisor: i32,
}
// Calculate `a` divided by `b` if `a` is evenly divisible by `b`.
// Otherwise, return a suitable error.
pub fn divide(a: i32, b: i32) -> Result<i32, DivisionError> {
if b == 0 {
Err(DivisionError::DivideByZero)
} else if a % b != 0 {
Err(DivisionError::NotDivisible(NotDivisibleError {
dividend: a,
divisor: b,
}))
} else {
Ok(a / b)
}
}
// Complete the function and return a value of the correct type so the test
// passes.
// Desired output: Ok([1, 11, 1426, 3])
fn result_with_list() -> Result<Vec<i32>, DivisionError> {
let numbers = vec![27, 297, 38502, 81];
numbers.into_iter().map(|n| divide(n, 27)).collect()
}
// Complete the function and return a value of the correct type so the test
// passes.
// Desired output: [Ok(1), Ok(11), Ok(1426), Ok(3)]
fn list_of_results() -> Vec<Result<i32, DivisionError>> {
let numbers = vec![27, 297, 38502, 81];
numbers.into_iter().map(|n| divide(n, 27)).collect()
}
15.4 iterator 4
/*
// iterators4.rs
//
// Execute `rustlings hint iterators4` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
pub fn factorial(num: u64) -> u64 {
// Complete this function to return the factorial of num
// Do not use:
// - return
// Try not to use:
// - imperative style loops (for, while)
// - additional variables
// For an extra challenge, don't use:
// - recursion
// Execute `rustlings hint iterators4` for hints.
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn factorial_of_0() {
assert_eq!(1, factorial(0));
}
#[test]
fn factorial_of_1() {
assert_eq!(1, factorial(1));
}
#[test]
fn factorial_of_2() {
assert_eq!(2, factorial(2));
}
#[test]
fn factorial_of_4() {
assert_eq!(24, factorial(4));
}
}
*/
pub fn factorial(num: u64) -> u64 {
// Complete this function to return the factorial of num
// Do not use:
// - return
// Try not to use:
// - imperative style loops (for, while)
// - additional variables
// For an extra challenge, don't use:
// - recursion
// Execute `rustlings hint iterators4` for hints.
(1..=num).fold(1, |acc, elem| acc * elem)
}
15.5 iterator 5
/*
// iterators5.rs
//
// Let's define a simple model to track Rustlings exercise progress. Progress
// will be modelled using a hash map. The name of the exercise is the key and
// the progress is the value. Two counting functions were created to count the
// number of exercises with a given progress. Recreate this counting
// functionality using iterators. Try not to use imperative loops (for, while).
// Only the two iterator methods (count_iterator and count_collection_iterator)
// need to be modified.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint iterators5` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
use std::collections::HashMap;
#[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
enum Progress {
None,
Some,
Complete,
}
fn count_for(map: &HashMap<String, Progress>, value: Progress) -> usize {
let mut count = 0;
for val in map.values() {
if val == &value {
count += 1;
}
}
count
}
fn count_iterator(map: &HashMap<String, Progress>, value: Progress) -> usize {
// map is a hashmap with String keys and Progress values.
// map = { "variables1": Complete, "from_str": None, ... }
todo!();
}
fn count_collection_for(collection: &[HashMap<String, Progress>], value: Progress) -> usize {
let mut count = 0;
for map in collection {
for val in map.values() {
if val == &value {
count += 1;
}
}
}
count
}
fn count_collection_iterator(collection: &[HashMap<String, Progress>], value: Progress) -> usize {
// collection is a slice of hashmaps.
// collection = [{ "variables1": Complete, "from_str": None, ... },
// { "variables2": Complete, ... }, ... ]
todo!();
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn count_complete() {
let map = get_map();
assert_eq!(3, count_iterator(&map, Progress::Complete));
}
#[test]
fn count_some() {
let map = get_map();
assert_eq!(1, count_iterator(&map, Progress::Some));
}
#[test]
fn count_none() {
let map = get_map();
assert_eq!(2, count_iterator(&map, Progress::None));
}
#[test]
fn count_complete_equals_for() {
let map = get_map();
let progress_states = vec![Progress::Complete, Progress::Some, Progress::None];
for progress_state in progress_states {
assert_eq!(
count_for(&map, progress_state),
count_iterator(&map, progress_state)
);
}
}
#[test]
fn count_collection_complete() {
let collection = get_vec_map();
assert_eq!(
6,
count_collection_iterator(&collection, Progress::Complete)
);
}
#[test]
fn count_collection_some() {
let collection = get_vec_map();
assert_eq!(1, count_collection_iterator(&collection, Progress::Some));
}
#[test]
fn count_collection_none() {
let collection = get_vec_map();
assert_eq!(4, count_collection_iterator(&collection, Progress::None));
}
#[test]
fn count_collection_equals_for() {
let progress_states = vec![Progress::Complete, Progress::Some, Progress::None];
let collection = get_vec_map();
for progress_state in progress_states {
assert_eq!(
count_collection_for(&collection, progress_state),
count_collection_iterator(&collection, progress_state)
);
}
}
fn get_map() -> HashMap<String, Progress> {
use Progress::*;
let mut map = HashMap::new();
map.insert(String::from("variables1"), Complete);
map.insert(String::from("functions1"), Complete);
map.insert(String::from("hashmap1"), Complete);
map.insert(String::from("arc1"), Some);
map.insert(String::from("as_ref_mut"), None);
map.insert(String::from("from_str"), None);
map
}
fn get_vec_map() -> Vec<HashMap<String, Progress>> {
use Progress::*;
let map = get_map();
let mut other = HashMap::new();
other.insert(String::from("variables2"), Complete);
other.insert(String::from("functions2"), Complete);
other.insert(String::from("if1"), Complete);
other.insert(String::from("from_into"), None);
other.insert(String::from("try_from_into"), None);
vec![map, other]
}
}
*/
use std::collections::HashMap;
#[derive(Clone, Copy, PartialEq, Eq)]
enum Progress {
None,
Some,
Complete,
}
fn count_for(map: &HashMap<String, Progress>, value: Progress) -> usize {
let mut count = 0;
for val in map.values() {
if val == &value {
count += 1;
}
}
count
}
fn count_iterator(map: &HashMap<String, Progress>, value: Progress) -> usize {
// map is a hashmap with String keys and Progress values.
// map = { "variables1": Complete, "from_str": None, ... }
map.values().filter(|x| value == **x).count()
}
fn count_collection_for(collection: &[HashMap<String, Progress>], value: Progress) -> usize {
let mut count = 0;
for map in collection {
for val in map.values() {
if val == &value {
count += 1;
}
}
}
count
}
fn count_collection_iterator(collection: &[HashMap<String, Progress>], value: Progress) -> usize {
// collection is a slice of hashmaps.
// collection = [{ "variables1": Complete, "from_str": None, ... },
// { "variables2": Complete, ... }, ... ]
collection.iter().map(|x| count_iterator(x, value)).sum()
}
十六、smart pointers
16.1 box 1
/*
// box1.rs
//
// At compile time, Rust needs to know how much space a type takes up. This
// becomes problematic for recursive types, where a value can have as part of
// itself another value of the same type. To get around the issue, we can use a
// `Box` - a smart pointer used to store data on the heap, which also allows us
// to wrap a recursive type.
//
// The recursive type we're implementing in this exercise is the `cons list` - a
// data structure frequently found in functional programming languages. Each
// item in a cons list contains two elements: the value of the current item and
// the next item. The last item is a value called `Nil`.
//
// Step 1: use a `Box` in the enum definition to make the code compile
// Step 2: create both empty and non-empty cons lists by replacing `todo!()`
//
// Note: the tests should not be changed
//
// Execute `rustlings hint box1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
pub enum List {
Cons(i32, List),
Nil,
}
fn main() {
println!("This is an empty cons list: {:?}", create_empty_list());
println!(
"This is a non-empty cons list: {:?}",
create_non_empty_list()
);
}
pub fn create_empty_list() -> List {
todo!()
}
pub fn create_non_empty_list() -> List {
todo!()
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn test_create_empty_list() {
assert_eq!(List::Nil, create_empty_list())
}
#[test]
fn test_create_non_empty_list() {
assert_ne!(create_empty_list(), create_non_empty_list())
}
}
*/
#[derive(PartialEq, Debug)]
pub enum List {
Cons(i32, Box<List>),
Nil,
}
fn main() {
println!("This is an empty cons list: {:?}", create_empty_list());
println!(
"This is a non-empty cons list: {:?}",
create_non_empty_list()
);
}
pub fn create_empty_list() -> List {
List::Nil
}
pub fn create_non_empty_list() -> List {
List::Cons(
1,
Box::new(List::Cons(2, Box::new(List::Cons(3, Box::new(List::Nil))))),
)
}
16.2 rc 1
/*
// rc1.rs
//
// In this exercise, we want to express the concept of multiple owners via the
// Rc<T> type. This is a model of our solar system - there is a Sun type and
// multiple Planets. The Planets take ownership of the sun, indicating that they
// revolve around the sun.
//
// Make this code compile by using the proper Rc primitives to express that the
// sun has multiple owners.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint rc1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
use std::rc::Rc;
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Sun {}
#[derive(Debug)]
enum Planet {
Mercury(Rc<Sun>),
Venus(Rc<Sun>),
Earth(Rc<Sun>),
Mars(Rc<Sun>),
Jupiter(Rc<Sun>),
Saturn(Rc<Sun>),
Uranus(Rc<Sun>),
Neptune(Rc<Sun>),
}
impl Planet {
fn details(&self) {
println!("Hi from {:?}!", self)
}
}
fn main() {
let sun = Rc::new(Sun {});
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 1 reference
let mercury = Planet::Mercury(Rc::clone(&sun));
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 2 references
mercury.details();
let venus = Planet::Venus(Rc::clone(&sun));
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 3 references
venus.details();
let earth = Planet::Earth(Rc::clone(&sun));
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 4 references
earth.details();
let mars = Planet::Mars(Rc::clone(&sun));
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 5 references
mars.details();
let jupiter = Planet::Jupiter(Rc::clone(&sun));
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 6 references
jupiter.details();
// TODO
let saturn = Planet::Saturn(Rc::new(Sun {}));
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 7 references
saturn.details();
// TODO
let uranus = Planet::Uranus(Rc::new(Sun {}));
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 8 references
uranus.details();
// TODO
let neptune = Planet::Neptune(Rc::new(Sun {}));
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 9 references
neptune.details();
assert_eq!(Rc::strong_count(&sun), 9);
drop(neptune);
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 8 references
drop(uranus);
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 7 references
drop(saturn);
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 6 references
drop(jupiter);
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 5 references
drop(mars);
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 4 references
// TODO
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 3 references
// TODO
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 2 references
// TODO
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 1 reference
assert_eq!(Rc::strong_count(&sun), 1);
}
*/
// https://github.com/gaveen/rustlings-solutions-5/blob/main/standard_library_types/rc1.rs
let saturn = Planet::Saturn(Rc::clone(&sun));
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 7 references
saturn.details();
let uranus = Planet::Uranus(Rc::clone(&sun));
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 8 references
uranus.details();
let neptune = Planet::Neptune(Rc::clone(&sun));
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 9 references
neptune.details();
drop(earth);
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 3 references
drop(venus);
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 2 references
drop(mercury);
println!("reference count = {}", Rc::strong_count(&sun)); // 1 reference
16.3 arc 1
/*
// arc1.rs
//
// In this exercise, we are given a Vec of u32 called "numbers" with values
// ranging from 0 to 99 -- [ 0, 1, 2, ..., 98, 99 ] We would like to use this
// set of numbers within 8 different threads simultaneously. Each thread is
// going to get the sum of every eighth value, with an offset.
//
// The first thread (offset 0), will sum 0, 8, 16, ...
// The second thread (offset 1), will sum 1, 9, 17, ...
// The third thread (offset 2), will sum 2, 10, 18, ...
// ...
// The eighth thread (offset 7), will sum 7, 15, 23, ...
//
// Because we are using threads, our values need to be thread-safe. Therefore,
// we are using Arc. We need to make a change in each of the two TODOs.
//
// Make this code compile by filling in a value for `shared_numbers` where the
// first TODO comment is, and create an initial binding for `child_numbers`
// where the second TODO comment is. Try not to create any copies of the
// `numbers` Vec!
//
// Execute `rustlings hint arc1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
#![forbid(unused_imports)] // Do not change this, (or the next) line.
use std::sync::Arc;
use std::thread;
fn main() {
let numbers: Vec<_> = (0..100u32).collect();
let shared_numbers = // TODO
let mut joinhandles = Vec::new();
for offset in 0..8 {
let child_numbers = // TODO
joinhandles.push(thread::spawn(move || {
let sum: u32 = child_numbers.iter().filter(|&&n| n % 8 == offset).sum();
println!("Sum of offset {} is {}", offset, sum);
}));
}
for handle in joinhandles.into_iter() {
handle.join().unwrap();
}
}
*/
#![forbid(unused_imports)] // Do not change this, (or the next) line.
use std::sync::Arc;
use std::thread;
fn main() {
let numbers: Vec<_> = (0..100u32).collect();
let shared_numbers = Arc::new(numbers);
let mut joinhandles = Vec::new();
for offset in 0..8 {
let child_numbers = Arc::clone(&shared_numbers);
joinhandles.push(thread::spawn(move || {
let sum: u32 = child_numbers.iter().filter(|&&n| n % 8 == offset).sum();
println!("Sum of offset {} is {}", offset, sum);
}));
}
for handle in joinhandles.into_iter() {
handle.join().unwrap();
}
}
16.4 cow 1
/*
// cow1.rs
//
// This exercise explores the Cow, or Clone-On-Write type. Cow is a
// clone-on-write smart pointer. It can enclose and provide immutable access to
// borrowed data, and clone the data lazily when mutation or ownership is
// required. The type is designed to work with general borrowed data via the
// Borrow trait.
//
// This exercise is meant to show you what to expect when passing data to Cow.
// Fix the unit tests by checking for Cow::Owned(_) and Cow::Borrowed(_) at the
// TODO markers.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint cow1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
use std::borrow::Cow;
fn abs_all<'a, 'b>(input: &'a mut Cow<'b, [i32]>) -> &'a mut Cow<'b, [i32]> {
for i in 0..input.len() {
let v = input[i];
if v < 0 {
// Clones into a vector if not already owned.
input.to_mut()[i] = -v;
}
}
input
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn reference_mutation() -> Result<(), &'static str> {
// Clone occurs because `input` needs to be mutated.
let slice = [-1, 0, 1];
let mut input = Cow::from(&slice[..]);
match abs_all(&mut input) {
Cow::Owned(_) => Ok(()),
_ => Err("Expected owned value"),
}
}
#[test]
fn reference_no_mutation() -> Result<(), &'static str> {
// No clone occurs because `input` doesn't need to be mutated.
let slice = [0, 1, 2];
let mut input = Cow::from(&slice[..]);
match abs_all(&mut input) {
// TODO
}
}
#[test]
fn owned_no_mutation() -> Result<(), &'static str> {
// We can also pass `slice` without `&` so Cow owns it directly. In this
// case no mutation occurs and thus also no clone, but the result is
// still owned because it was never borrowed or mutated.
let slice = vec![0, 1, 2];
let mut input = Cow::from(slice);
match abs_all(&mut input) {
// TODO
}
}
#[test]
fn owned_mutation() -> Result<(), &'static str> {
// Of course this is also the case if a mutation does occur. In this
// case the call to `to_mut()` returns a reference to the same data as
// before.
let slice = vec![-1, 0, 1];
let mut input = Cow::from(slice);
match abs_all(&mut input) {
// TODO
}
}
}
*/
use std::borrow::Cow;
fn abs_all<'a, 'b>(input: &'a mut Cow<'b, [i32]>) -> &'a mut Cow<'b, [i32]> {
for i in 0..input.len() {
let v = input[i];
if v < 0 {
// Clones into a vector if not already owned.
input.to_mut()[i] = -v;
}
}
input
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn reference_mutation() -> Result<(), &'static str> {
// Clone occurs because `input` needs to be mutated.
let slice = [-1, 0, 1];
let mut input = Cow::from(&slice[..]);
match abs_all(&mut input) {
Cow::Owned(_) => Ok(()),
_ => Err("Expected owned value"),
}
}
#[test]
fn reference_no_mutation() -> Result<(), &'static str> {
// No clone occurs because `input` doesn't need to be mutated.
let slice = [0, 1, 2];
let mut input = Cow::from(&slice[..]);
match abs_all(&mut input) {
Cow::Borrowed(_) => Ok(()),
_ => panic!("Expected borrowed value"),
}
}
#[test]
fn owned_no_mutation() -> Result<(), &'static str> {
// We can also pass `slice` without `&` so Cow owns it directly. In this
// case no mutation occurs and thus also no clone, but the result is
// still owned because it was never borrowed or mutated.
let slice = vec![0, 1, 2];
let mut input = Cow::from(slice);
match abs_all(&mut input) {
Cow::Owned(_) => Ok(()),
_ => panic!("Excepted owned value"),
}
}
#[test]
fn owned_mutation() -> Result<(), &'static str> {
// Of course this is also the case if a mutation does occur. In this
// case the call to `to_mut()` returns a reference to the same data as
// before.
let slice = vec![-1, 0, 1];
let mut input = Cow::from(slice);
match abs_all(&mut input) {
Cow::Owned(_) => Ok(()),
_ => panic!("Excepted borrowed value"),
}
}
}
十七、thread
17.1 thread 1
/*
// threads1.rs
//
// This program spawns multiple threads that each run for at least 250ms, and
// each thread returns how much time they took to complete. The program should
// wait until all the spawned threads have finished and should collect their
// return values into a vector.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint threads1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
use std::thread;
use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
fn main() {
let mut handles = vec![];
for i in 0..10 {
handles.push(thread::spawn(move || {
let start = Instant::now();
thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(250));
println!("thread {} is complete", i);
start.elapsed().as_millis()
}));
}
let mut results: Vec<u128> = vec![];
for handle in handles {
// TODO: a struct is returned from thread::spawn, can you use it?
}
if results.len() != 10 {
panic!("Oh no! All the spawned threads did not finish!");
}
println!();
for (i, result) in results.into_iter().enumerate() {
println!("thread {} took {}ms", i, result);
}
}
*/
use std::thread;
use std::time::{Duration, Instant};
fn main() {
let mut handles = vec![];
for i in 0..10 {
handles.push(thread::spawn(move || {
let start = Instant::now();
thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(250));
println!("thread {} is complete", i);
start.elapsed().as_millis()
}));
}
let mut results: Vec<u128> = vec![];
for handle in handles {
// TODO: a struct is returned from thread::spawn, can you use it?
let x = handle.join().unwrap();
results.push(x);
}
if results.len() != 10 {
panic!("Oh no! All the spawned threads did not finish!");
}
println!();
for (i, result) in results.into_iter().enumerate() {
println!("thread {} took {}ms", i, result);
}
}
17.2 thread 2
/*
// threads2.rs
//
// Building on the last exercise, we want all of the threads to complete their
// work but this time the spawned threads need to be in charge of updating a
// shared value: JobStatus.jobs_completed
//
// Execute `rustlings hint threads2` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
use std::sync::Arc;
use std::thread;
use std::time::Duration;
struct JobStatus {
jobs_completed: u32,
}
fn main() {
let status = Arc::new(JobStatus { jobs_completed: 0 });
let mut handles = vec![];
for _ in 0..10 {
let status_shared = Arc::clone(&status);
let handle = thread::spawn(move || {
thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(250));
// TODO: You must take an action before you update a shared value
status_shared.jobs_completed += 1;
});
handles.push(handle);
}
for handle in handles {
handle.join().unwrap();
// TODO: Print the value of the JobStatus.jobs_completed. Did you notice
// anything interesting in the output? Do you have to 'join' on all the
// handles?
println!("jobs completed {}", ???);
}
}
*/
use std::sync::{{Arc, Mutex}};
use std::thread;
use std::time::Duration;
struct JobStatus {
jobs_completed: u32,
}
fn main() {
let status = Arc::new(Mutex::new(JobStatus { jobs_completed: 0 }));
let mut handles = vec![];
for _ in 0..10 {
let status_shared = status.clone();
let handle = thread::spawn(move || {
thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(250));
let mut counter = status_shared.lock().unwrap();
counter.jobs_completed += 1;
});
handles.push(handle);
}
for handle in handles {
handle.join().unwrap();
println!("jobs completed {}", status.lock().unwrap().jobs_completed);
}
}
code results:
🎉 🎉 The code is compiling! 🎉 🎉
Output:
====================
jobs completed 10
jobs completed 10
jobs completed 10
jobs completed 10
jobs completed 10
jobs completed 10
jobs completed 10
jobs completed 10
jobs completed 10
jobs completed 10
====================
17.3 thread 3
/*
// threads3.rs
//
// Execute `rustlings hint threads3` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
use std::sync::mpsc;
use std::sync::Arc;
use std::thread;
use std::time::Duration;
struct Queue {
length: u32,
first_half: Vec<u32>,
second_half: Vec<u32>,
}
impl Queue {
fn new() -> Self {
Queue {
length: 10,
first_half: vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5],
second_half: vec![6, 7, 8, 9, 10],
}
}
}
fn send_tx(q: Queue, tx: mpsc::Sender<u32>) -> () {
let qc = Arc::new(q);
let qc1 = Arc::clone(&qc);
let qc2 = Arc::clone(&qc);
thread::spawn(move || {
for val in &qc1.first_half {
println!("sending {:?}", val);
tx.send(*val).unwrap();
thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1));
}
});
thread::spawn(move || {
for val in &qc2.second_half {
println!("sending {:?}", val);
tx.send(*val).unwrap();
thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1));
}
});
}
fn main() {
let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();
let queue = Queue::new();
let queue_length = queue.length;
send_tx(queue, tx);
let mut total_received: u32 = 0;
for received in rx {
println!("Got: {}", received);
total_received += 1;
}
println!("total numbers received: {}", total_received);
assert_eq!(total_received, queue_length)
}
*/
use std::sync::mpsc;
use std::sync::Arc;
use std::thread;
use std::time::Duration;
struct Queue {
length: u32,
first_half: Vec<u32>,
second_half: Vec<u32>,
}
impl Queue {
fn new() -> Self {
Queue {
length: 10,
first_half: vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5],
second_half: vec![6, 7, 8, 9, 10],
}
}
}
fn send_tx(q: Queue, tx: mpsc::Sender<u32>) -> () {
let qc = Arc::new(q);
let qc1 = Arc::clone(&qc);
let qc2 = Arc::clone(&qc);
let tx1 = tx.clone();
let tx2 = tx.clone();
thread::spawn(move || {
for val in &qc1.first_half {
println!("sending {:?}", val);
tx1.send(*val).unwrap();
thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1));
}
});
thread::spawn(move || {
for val in &qc2.second_half {
println!("sending {:?}", val);
tx2.send(*val).unwrap();
thread::sleep(Duration::from_secs(1));
}
});
}
fn main() {
let (tx, rx) = mpsc::channel();
let queue = Queue::new();
let queue_length = queue.length;
send_tx(queue, tx);
let mut total_received: u32 = 0;
for received in rx {
println!("Got: {}", received);
total_received += 1;
}
println!("total numbers received: {}", total_received);
assert_eq!(total_received, queue_length)
}
// code results:
🎉 🎉 The code is compiling! 🎉 🎉
Output:
====================
sending 1
sending 6
Got: 1
Got: 6
sending 7
Got: 7
sending 2
Got: 2
sending 8
sending 3
Got: 8
Got: 3
sending 9
sending 4
Got: 9
Got: 4
sending 10
sending 5
Got: 10
Got: 5
total numbers received: 10
====================
十八、macro
18.1 macro 1
/*
// macros1.rs
//
// Execute `rustlings hint macros1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
macro_rules! my_macro {
() => {
println!("Check out my macro!");
};
}
fn main() {
my_macro();
}
*/
macro_rules! my_macro {
() => {
println!("Check out my macro!");
};
}
fn main() {
my_macro!();
}
18.2 macro 2
/*
// macros2.rs
//
// Execute `rustlings hint macros2` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
fn main() {
my_macro!();
}
macro_rules! my_macro {
() => {
println!("Check out my macro!");
};
}
*/
macro_rules! my_macro {
() => {
println!("Check out my macro!");
};
}
fn main() {
my_macro!();
}
18.3 macro 3
/*
// macros3.rs
//
// Make me compile, without taking the macro out of the module!
//
// Execute `rustlings hint macros3` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
mod macros {
macro_rules! my_macro {
() => {
println!("Check out my macro!");
};
}
}
fn main() {
my_macro!();
}
*/
#[macro_use]
mod macros {
macro_rules! my_macro {
() => {
println!("Check out my macro!");
};
}
}
fn main() {
my_macro!();
}
18.4 macro 4
/*
// macros4.rs
//
// Execute `rustlings hint macros4` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
#[rustfmt::skip]
macro_rules! my_macro {
() => {
println!("Check out my macro!");
}
($val:expr) => {
println!("Look at this other macro: {}", $val);
}
}
fn main() {
my_macro!();
my_macro!(7777);
}
*/
macro_rules! my_macro {
() => {
println!("Check out my macro!");
};
($val:expr) => {
println!("Look at this other macro: {}", $val);
};
}
fn main() {
my_macro!();
my_macro!(7777);
}
十九、clippy
19.1 clippy 1
/*
// clippy1.rs
//
// The Clippy tool is a collection of lints to analyze your code so you can
// catch common mistakes and improve your Rust code.
//
// For these exercises the code will fail to compile when there are clippy
// warnings check clippy's suggestions from the output to solve the exercise.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint clippy1` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
use std::f32;
fn main() {
let pi = 3.14f32;
let radius = 5.00f32;
let area = pi * f32::powi(radius, 2);
println!(
"The area of a circle with radius {:.2} is {:.5}!",
radius, area
)
}
*/
use std::f32;
fn main() {
let pi = f32::consts::PI;
let radius = 5.00f32;
let area = pi * f32::powi(radius, 2);
println!(
"The area of a circle with radius {:.2} is {:.5}!",
radius, area
)
}
19.2 clippy 2
/*
// clippy2.rs
//
// Execute `rustlings hint clippy2` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
fn main() {
let mut res = 42;
let option = Some(12);
for x in option {
res += x;
}
println!("{}", res);
}
*/
fn main() {
let mut res = 42;
let option = Some(12);
while let Some(x) = option {
res += x;
}
println!("{}", res);
}
19.3 clippy 3
/*
// clippy3.rs
//
// Here's a couple more easy Clippy fixes, so you can see its utility.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint clippy3` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
#[allow(unused_variables, unused_assignments)]
fn main() {
let my_option: Option<()> = None;
if my_option.is_none() {
my_option.unwrap();
}
let my_arr = &[
-1, -2, -3
-4, -5, -6
];
println!("My array! Here it is: {:?}", my_arr);
let my_empty_vec = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5].resize(0, 5);
println!("This Vec is empty, see? {:?}", my_empty_vec);
let mut value_a = 45;
let mut value_b = 66;
// Let's swap these two!
value_a = value_b;
value_b = value_a;
println!("value a: {}; value b: {}", value_a, value_b);
}
*/
#[allow(unused_variables, unused_assignments)]
fn main() {
let my_option: Option<()> = None;
if my_option.is_none() {
println!("my_option is invalid none")
}
let my_arr = &[-1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6];
println!("My array! Here it is: {:?}", my_arr);
let my_empty_vec = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
println!("This Vec is empty, see? {:?}", my_empty_vec);
let mut value_a = 45;
let mut value_b = 66;
// Let's swap these two!
std::mem::swap(&mut value_a, &mut value_b);
println!("value a: {}; value b: {}", value_a, value_b);
}
二十、conversion
20.1 using_as
/*
// using_as.rs
//
// Type casting in Rust is done via the usage of the `as` operator. Please note
// that the `as` operator is not only used when type casting. It also helps with
// renaming imports.
//
// The goal is to make sure that the division does not fail to compile and
// returns the proper type.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint using_as` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
fn average(values: &[f64]) -> f64 {
let total = values.iter().sum::<f64>();
total / values.len()
}
fn main() {
let values = [3.5, 0.3, 13.0, 11.7];
println!("{}", average(&values));
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn returns_proper_type_and_value() {
assert_eq!(average(&[3.5, 0.3, 13.0, 11.7]), 7.125);
}
}
*/
fn average(values: &[f64]) -> f64 {
let total = values.iter().sum::<f64>();
total / values.len() as f64
}
fn main() {
let values = [3.5, 0.3, 13.0, 11.7];
println!("{}", average(&values));
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn returns_proper_type_and_value() {
assert_eq!(average(&[3.5, 0.3, 13.0, 11.7]), 7.125);
}
}
20.2 from_into
/*
// from_into.rs
//
// The From trait is used for value-to-value conversions. If From is implemented
// correctly for a type, the Into trait should work conversely. You can read
// more about it at https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/convert/trait.From.html
//
// Execute `rustlings hint from_into` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Person {
name: String,
age: usize,
}
// We implement the Default trait to use it as a fallback
// when the provided string is not convertible into a Person object
impl Default for Person {
fn default() -> Person {
Person {
name: String::from("John"),
age: 30,
}
}
}
// Your task is to complete this implementation in order for the line `let p =
// Person::from("Mark,20")` to compile Please note that you'll need to parse the
// age component into a `usize` with something like `"4".parse::<usize>()`. The
// outcome of this needs to be handled appropriately.
//
// Steps:
// 1. If the length of the provided string is 0, then return the default of
// Person.
// 2. Split the given string on the commas present in it.
// 3. Extract the first element from the split operation and use it as the name.
// 4. If the name is empty, then return the default of Person.
// 5. Extract the other element from the split operation and parse it into a
// `usize` as the age.
// If while parsing the age, something goes wrong, then return the default of
// Person Otherwise, then return an instantiated Person object with the results
// I AM NOT DONE
impl From<&str> for Person {
fn from(s: &str) -> Person {
}
}
fn main() {
// Use the `from` function
let p1 = Person::from("Mark,20");
// Since From is implemented for Person, we should be able to use Into
let p2: Person = "Gerald,70".into();
println!("{:?}", p1);
println!("{:?}", p2);
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn test_default() {
// Test that the default person is 30 year old John
let dp = Person::default();
assert_eq!(dp.name, "John");
assert_eq!(dp.age, 30);
}
#[test]
fn test_bad_convert() {
// Test that John is returned when bad string is provided
let p = Person::from("");
assert_eq!(p.name, "John");
assert_eq!(p.age, 30);
}
#[test]
fn test_good_convert() {
// Test that "Mark,20" works
let p = Person::from("Mark,20");
assert_eq!(p.name, "Mark");
assert_eq!(p.age, 20);
}
#[test]
fn test_bad_age() {
// Test that "Mark,twenty" will return the default person due to an
// error in parsing age
let p = Person::from("Mark,twenty");
assert_eq!(p.name, "John");
assert_eq!(p.age, 30);
}
#[test]
fn test_missing_comma_and_age() {
let p: Person = Person::from("Mark");
assert_eq!(p.name, "John");
assert_eq!(p.age, 30);
}
#[test]
fn test_missing_age() {
let p: Person = Person::from("Mark,");
assert_eq!(p.name, "John");
assert_eq!(p.age, 30);
}
#[test]
fn test_missing_name() {
let p: Person = Person::from(",1");
assert_eq!(p.name, "John");
assert_eq!(p.age, 30);
}
#[test]
fn test_missing_name_and_age() {
let p: Person = Person::from(",");
assert_eq!(p.name, "John");
assert_eq!(p.age, 30);
}
#[test]
fn test_missing_name_and_invalid_age() {
let p: Person = Person::from(",one");
assert_eq!(p.name, "John");
assert_eq!(p.age, 30);
}
#[test]
fn test_trailing_comma() {
let p: Person = Person::from("Mike,32,");
assert_eq!(p.name, "John");
assert_eq!(p.age, 30);
}
#[test]
fn test_trailing_comma_and_some_string() {
let p: Person = Person::from("Mike,32,man");
assert_eq!(p.name, "John");
assert_eq!(p.age, 30);
}
}
*/
impl From<&str> for Person {
fn from(s: &str) -> Person {
match s.split_once(',') {
Some((first, second)) => {
if first.is_empty() {
Person::default()
} else if let Ok(a) = second.parse::<usize>() {
Person {
name: first.into(),
age: a,
}
} else {
Person::default()
}
}
_ => Person::default(),
}
}
}
20.3 from_str
/*
// from_str.rs
//
// This is similar to from_into.rs, but this time we'll implement `FromStr` and
// return errors instead of falling back to a default value. Additionally, upon
// implementing FromStr, you can use the `parse` method on strings to generate
// an object of the implementor type. You can read more about it at
// https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/str/trait.FromStr.html
//
// Execute `rustlings hint from_str` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
use std::num::ParseIntError;
use std::str::FromStr;
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
struct Person {
name: String,
age: usize,
}
// We will use this error type for the `FromStr` implementation.
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
enum ParsePersonError {
// Empty input string
Empty,
// Incorrect number of fields
BadLen,
// Empty name field
NoName,
// Wrapped error from parse::<usize>()
ParseInt(ParseIntError),
}
// I AM NOT DONE
// Steps:
// 1. If the length of the provided string is 0, an error should be returned
// 2. Split the given string on the commas present in it
// 3. Only 2 elements should be returned from the split, otherwise return an
// error
// 4. Extract the first element from the split operation and use it as the name
// 5. Extract the other element from the split operation and parse it into a
// `usize` as the age with something like `"4".parse::<usize>()`
// 6. If while extracting the name and the age something goes wrong, an error
// should be returned
// If everything goes well, then return a Result of a Person object
//
// As an aside: `Box<dyn Error>` implements `From<&'_ str>`. This means that if
// you want to return a string error message, you can do so via just using
// return `Err("my error message".into())`.
impl FromStr for Person {
type Err = ParsePersonError;
fn from_str(s: &str) -> Result<Person, Self::Err> {
}
}
fn main() {
let p = "Mark,20".parse::<Person>().unwrap();
println!("{:?}", p);
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn empty_input() {
assert_eq!("".parse::<Person>(), Err(ParsePersonError::Empty));
}
#[test]
fn good_input() {
let p = "John,32".parse::<Person>();
assert!(p.is_ok());
let p = p.unwrap();
assert_eq!(p.name, "John");
assert_eq!(p.age, 32);
}
#[test]
fn missing_age() {
assert!(matches!(
"John,".parse::<Person>(),
Err(ParsePersonError::ParseInt(_))
));
}
#[test]
fn invalid_age() {
assert!(matches!(
"John,twenty".parse::<Person>(),
Err(ParsePersonError::ParseInt(_))
));
}
#[test]
fn missing_comma_and_age() {
assert_eq!("John".parse::<Person>(), Err(ParsePersonError::BadLen));
}
#[test]
fn missing_name() {
assert_eq!(",1".parse::<Person>(), Err(ParsePersonError::NoName));
}
#[test]
fn missing_name_and_age() {
assert!(matches!(
",".parse::<Person>(),
Err(ParsePersonError::NoName | ParsePersonError::ParseInt(_))
));
}
#[test]
fn missing_name_and_invalid_age() {
assert!(matches!(
",one".parse::<Person>(),
Err(ParsePersonError::NoName | ParsePersonError::ParseInt(_))
));
}
#[test]
fn trailing_comma() {
assert_eq!("John,32,".parse::<Person>(), Err(ParsePersonError::BadLen));
}
#[test]
fn trailing_comma_and_some_string() {
assert_eq!(
"John,32,man".parse::<Person>(),
Err(ParsePersonError::BadLen)
);
}
}
*/
impl FromStr for Person {
type Err = ParsePersonError;
fn from_str(s: &str) -> Result<Person, Self::Err> {
if s.is_empty() {
Err(ParsePersonError::Empty)
} else {
let p: Vec<&str> = s.split(',').collect();
if p.len() != 2 {
Err(ParsePersonError::BadLen)
} else if p[0].len() == 0 {
Err(ParsePersonError::NoName)
} else {
match p[1].parse::<usize>() {
Ok(a) => Ok(Person {
name: p[0].to_string(),
age: a,
}),
Err(a) => Err(ParsePersonError::ParseInt(a)),
}
}
}
}
}
20.4 try_from_into
/*
// try_from_into.rs
//
// TryFrom is a simple and safe type conversion that may fail in a controlled
// way under some circumstances. Basically, this is the same as From. The main
// difference is that this should return a Result type instead of the target
// type itself. You can read more about it at
// https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/convert/trait.TryFrom.html
//
// Execute `rustlings hint try_from_into` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for
// a hint.
use std::convert::{TryFrom, TryInto};
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
struct Color {
red: u8,
green: u8,
blue: u8,
}
// We will use this error type for these `TryFrom` conversions.
#[derive(Debug, PartialEq)]
enum IntoColorError {
// Incorrect length of slice
BadLen,
// Integer conversion error
IntConversion,
}
// I AM NOT DONE
// Your task is to complete this implementation and return an Ok result of inner
// type Color. You need to create an implementation for a tuple of three
// integers, an array of three integers, and a slice of integers.
//
// Note that the implementation for tuple and array will be checked at compile
// time, but the slice implementation needs to check the slice length! Also note
// that correct RGB color values must be integers in the 0..=255 range.
// Tuple implementation
impl TryFrom<(i16, i16, i16)> for Color {
type Error = IntoColorError;
fn try_from(tuple: (i16, i16, i16)) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
}
}
// Array implementation
impl TryFrom<[i16; 3]> for Color {
type Error = IntoColorError;
fn try_from(arr: [i16; 3]) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
}
}
// Slice implementation
impl TryFrom<&[i16]> for Color {
type Error = IntoColorError;
fn try_from(slice: &[i16]) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
}
}
fn main() {
// Use the `try_from` function
let c1 = Color::try_from((183, 65, 14));
println!("{:?}", c1);
// Since TryFrom is implemented for Color, we should be able to use TryInto
let c2: Result<Color, _> = [183, 65, 14].try_into();
println!("{:?}", c2);
let v = vec![183, 65, 14];
// With slice we should use `try_from` function
let c3 = Color::try_from(&v[..]);
println!("{:?}", c3);
// or take slice within round brackets and use TryInto
let c4: Result<Color, _> = (&v[..]).try_into();
println!("{:?}", c4);
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn test_tuple_out_of_range_positive() {
assert_eq!(
Color::try_from((256, 1000, 10000)),
Err(IntoColorError::IntConversion)
);
}
#[test]
fn test_tuple_out_of_range_negative() {
assert_eq!(
Color::try_from((-1, -10, -256)),
Err(IntoColorError::IntConversion)
);
}
#[test]
fn test_tuple_sum() {
assert_eq!(
Color::try_from((-1, 255, 255)),
Err(IntoColorError::IntConversion)
);
}
#[test]
fn test_tuple_correct() {
let c: Result<Color, _> = (183, 65, 14).try_into();
assert!(c.is_ok());
assert_eq!(
c.unwrap(),
Color {
red: 183,
green: 65,
blue: 14
}
);
}
#[test]
fn test_array_out_of_range_positive() {
let c: Result<Color, _> = [1000, 10000, 256].try_into();
assert_eq!(c, Err(IntoColorError::IntConversion));
}
#[test]
fn test_array_out_of_range_negative() {
let c: Result<Color, _> = [-10, -256, -1].try_into();
assert_eq!(c, Err(IntoColorError::IntConversion));
}
#[test]
fn test_array_sum() {
let c: Result<Color, _> = [-1, 255, 255].try_into();
assert_eq!(c, Err(IntoColorError::IntConversion));
}
#[test]
fn test_array_correct() {
let c: Result<Color, _> = [183, 65, 14].try_into();
assert!(c.is_ok());
assert_eq!(
c.unwrap(),
Color {
red: 183,
green: 65,
blue: 14
}
);
}
#[test]
fn test_slice_out_of_range_positive() {
let arr = [10000, 256, 1000];
assert_eq!(
Color::try_from(&arr[..]),
Err(IntoColorError::IntConversion)
);
}
#[test]
fn test_slice_out_of_range_negative() {
let arr = [-256, -1, -10];
assert_eq!(
Color::try_from(&arr[..]),
Err(IntoColorError::IntConversion)
);
}
#[test]
fn test_slice_sum() {
let arr = [-1, 255, 255];
assert_eq!(
Color::try_from(&arr[..]),
Err(IntoColorError::IntConversion)
);
}
#[test]
fn test_slice_correct() {
let v = vec![183, 65, 14];
let c: Result<Color, _> = Color::try_from(&v[..]);
assert!(c.is_ok());
assert_eq!(
c.unwrap(),
Color {
red: 183,
green: 65,
blue: 14
}
);
}
#[test]
fn test_slice_excess_length() {
let v = vec![0, 0, 0, 0];
assert_eq!(Color::try_from(&v[..]), Err(IntoColorError::BadLen));
}
#[test]
fn test_slice_insufficient_length() {
let v = vec![0, 0];
assert_eq!(Color::try_from(&v[..]), Err(IntoColorError::BadLen));
}
}
*/
impl TryFrom<(i16, i16, i16)> for Color {
type Error = IntoColorError;
fn try_from(tuple: (i16, i16, i16)) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
for i in [tuple.0, tuple.1, tuple.2] {
if i < 0 || i > 255 {
return Err(IntoColorError::IntConversion);
}
}
Ok(Color {
red: tuple.0 as u8,
green: tuple.1 as u8,
blue: tuple.2 as u8,
})
}
}
// Array implementation
impl TryFrom<[i16; 3]> for Color {
type Error = IntoColorError;
fn try_from(arr: [i16; 3]) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
Self::try_from((arr[0], arr[1], arr[2]))
}
}
// Slice implementation
impl TryFrom<&[i16]> for Color {
type Error = IntoColorError;
fn try_from(slice: &[i16]) -> Result<Self, Self::Error> {
if slice.len() != 3 {
Err(IntoColorError::BadLen)
} else {
Self::try_from((slice[0], slice[1], slice[2]))
}
}
}
20.5 as_ref_mut
/*
// as_ref_mut.rs
//
// AsRef and AsMut allow for cheap reference-to-reference conversions. Read more
// about them at https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/convert/trait.AsRef.html and
// https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/convert/trait.AsMut.html, respectively.
//
// Execute `rustlings hint as_ref_mut` or use the `hint` watch subcommand for a
// hint.
// I AM NOT DONE
// Obtain the number of bytes (not characters) in the given argument.
// TODO: Add the AsRef trait appropriately as a trait bound.
fn byte_counter<T>(arg: T) -> usize {
arg.as_ref().as_bytes().len()
}
// Obtain the number of characters (not bytes) in the given argument.
// TODO: Add the AsRef trait appropriately as a trait bound.
fn char_counter<T>(arg: T) -> usize {
arg.as_ref().chars().count()
}
// Squares a number using as_mut().
// TODO: Add the appropriate trait bound.
fn num_sq<T>(arg: &mut T) {
// TODO: Implement the function body.
???
}
#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
use super::*;
#[test]
fn different_counts() {
let s = "Café au lait";
assert_ne!(char_counter(s), byte_counter(s));
}
#[test]
fn same_counts() {
let s = "Cafe au lait";
assert_eq!(char_counter(s), byte_counter(s));
}
#[test]
fn different_counts_using_string() {
let s = String::from("Café au lait");
assert_ne!(char_counter(s.clone()), byte_counter(s));
}
#[test]
fn same_counts_using_string() {
let s = String::from("Cafe au lait");
assert_eq!(char_counter(s.clone()), byte_counter(s));
}
#[test]
fn mult_box() {
let mut num: Box<u32> = Box::new(3);
num_sq(&mut num);
assert_eq!(*num, 9);
}
}
*/
// Obtain the number of bytes (not characters) in the given argument.
// TODO: Add the AsRef trait appropriately as a trait bound.
fn byte_counter<T: AsRef<str>>(arg: T) -> usize {
arg.as_ref().as_bytes().len()
}
// Obtain the number of characters (not bytes) in the given argument.
// TODO: Add the AsRef trait appropriately as a trait bound.
fn char_counter<T: AsRef<str>>(arg: T) -> usize {
arg.as_ref().chars().count()
}
// Squares a number using as_mut().
// TODO: Add the appropriate trait bound.
fn num_sq<T: AsMut<u32>>(arg: &mut T) {
// TODO: Implement the function body.
*arg.as_mut() *= *arg.as_mut()
}
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