工科数学分析 MA_12 Vectors and the Geometry of Space （下篇）

12.4 The Cross Product（叉乘/外积）

The Definition of Cross Product

叉积运算只适用于三维向量，不适用于二维向量

Given two nonzero vectors $\vec{u}$ and $\vec{v}$.

• If they are not parallel, they determine a plane. We select a unit vector $\vec{n}$ perpendicular to the plane(平面的单位法向量，告诉我们该平面的倾斜程度) by right hand rule. Then the Cross product $\vec{u}\times \vec{v}$ is defined as follows:

  $$\vec{u}\times \vec{v}=(|\vec{u}||\vec{v}|sin\theta )\vec{n}$$

• Since the sines of 0 and π are both zero, it make sense to define the cross product of two parallel(平面向量：方向相同或相反) nonzero vectors to be zero.

  $$\vec{u}\times \vec{v}=\vec{0}$$

(若为$\vec{v}\times \vec{u}$则要从$\vec{v}$展到$\vec{u}$)

(若分配律适用可推出)If $\vec{u}=(u_1,u_2,u_3)$ and $\vec{v}=(v_1,v_2,v_3)$ , then the cross product of $\vec{u}$ and $\vec{v}$ is the vector

$$\vec{u}\times \vec{v}=(u_{1}i+u_{2}j+u_{3}k)\times (v_{1}i+v_{2}j+v_{3}k)=(u_2{v}_3-u_3{v}_2,u_3{v}_1-u_1{v}_3,u_1{v}_2-u_2{v}_1)$$

We often write

$$\vec{u}\times \vec{v}=\left|\begin{array}{ccc}i& j& k\\ u_1& u_2& u_3\\ v_1& v_2& v_3\end{array}\right|$$

The length of Cross Product

Theorem:

If θ is the angle between $\vec{u}$ and $\vec{v}$ ($0\le \theta \le \pi$), then

$$|\vec{u}\times \vec{v}|=|\vec{u}||\vec{v}|sin\theta$$

The length of the cross product $\vec{u}\times \vec{v}$ is equal to the area of parallelogram(平行四边形的面积) determined by $\vec{u}$ and $\vec{v}$.

The properties of Cross Product

If $\vec{u}$, $\vec{v}$ and $\vec{w}$ are vectors and $\lambda$ is a scalar, then

1. Nonzero vectors $\vec{u}$ and $\vec{v}$ are parallel if and only if $\vec{u}\times \vec{v}=\vec{0}$
2. $\vec{u}\times \vec{v}=-\vec{v}\times \vec{u}$
3. $(\lambda \vec{u})\times \vec{v}=\vec{u}\times (\lambda \vec{v})=\lambda (\vec{u}\times \vec{v})$
4. $\vec{u}\times (\vec{v}+\vec{w})=\vec{u}\times \vec{v}+\vec{u}\times \vec{w}$
5. $(\vec{u}+\vec{v})\times \vec{w}=\vec{u}\times \vec{w}+\vec{v}\times \vec{w}$

Triple Product（混合积/三重积）

The Product $\vec{u}\cdot (\vec{v}\times \vec{w})$ is called the scalar triple product:

$$\vec{u}\cdot (\vec{v}\times \vec{w})=\left|\begin{array}{ccc}{u}_1& u_2& u_3\\ v_1& v_2& v_3\\ w_1& w_2& w_3\end{array}\right|$$

The magnitude of scalar triple product is the volume of the parallelepiped(三个向量定义的平行六面体的体积) determined by the vectors $\vec{u}$, $\vec{v}$ and $\vec{w}$.

$$V=|\vec{u}\cdot (\vec{v}\times \vec{w})|$$

(证明三个空间向量共面可以证明V=0，则三个向量定义的平行六面体的高为0)

12.5 Equations of Lines and Planes

Vector Equations of Lines

A line L in three-dimensional space is determined when we know a point $P_0(x_0,y_0,z_0)$ on L and direction $\vec{v}=(a,b,c)$ of L

• The vector equation of L:

  $$\vec{r}=\overrightarrow{r_0}+t\vec{v}$$

• The parametric equation of L:

  $$\vec{x}=\overrightarrow{x_0}+at,\vec{y}=\overrightarrow{y_0}+bt,\vec{z}=\overrightarrow{z_0}+ct$$

where $P(x,y,z)$ is an arbitrary point on L, and $\vec{r}$ and $\overrightarrow{r_0}$ be the position vectors of $P$ and $P_0$. ($\vec{r}=\overrightarrow{OP}$, and $\overrightarrow{r_0}=\overrightarrow{O{P}_0}$ )

• The symmetric equation of L:

  $$\frac{x-x_0}{a}=\frac{y-y_0}{b}=\frac{z-z_0}{c}$$

• If one of a, b or c is 0, we can eliminate t. For instance, if a = 0:

  $$x=x_0,\frac{y-y_0}{b}=\frac{z-z_0}{c}$$

• If the line L passes two points $P_0(x_0,y_0,z_0)$ and $P_1(x_1,y_1,z_1)$, the symmetric equation of the line L is:

  $$\frac{x-x_0}{x_1-x_0}=\frac{y-y_0}{y_1-y_0}=\frac{z-z_0}{z_1-z_0}$$

• we denote the position vector $\overrightarrow{r_0}=\overrightarrow{O{P}_0}$, $\overrightarrow{r_1}=\overrightarrow{O{P}_1}$, the vector equation becomes

  $$\vec{r}=\overrightarrow{r_0}+t(\overrightarrow{r_1}-\overrightarrow{r_0})=t\overrightarrow{r_1}+(1-t)\overrightarrow{r_0}$$

• The line segment from $r_0$ to $r_1$ is given by

  $$\vec{r}=t\overrightarrow{r_1}+(1-t)\overrightarrow{r_0},0\le t\le 1$$

Vector Equations of the plane

A plane in three-dimensional space is determined when we know a point $P_0(x_0,y_0,z_0)$ in the plane and a vector $\vec{n}=(a,b,c)$ that is orthogonal to the plane. n tells us how the plane is tilting.

• The vector equation of the plane:

  $$\vec{n}\cdot (\vec{r}-\overrightarrow{r_0})=0$$

• The scalar equation of the plane though $P_0(x_0,y_0,z_0)$ with normal vector $\vec{n}=(a,b,c)$

  $$a(x-x_0)+b(y-y_0)+c(z-z_0)=0orax+by+cz+d=0$$

where $P(x,y,z)$ is an arbitrary point in the plane, and $\vec{r}$ and $\overrightarrow{r_0}$ be the position vectors of $P$ and $P_0$. ($\vec{r}=\overrightarrow{OP},\overrightarrow{r_0}=\overrightarrow{O{P}_0}$ )

• Two planes are parallel if their normal vectors(法向量) are parallel.
• If two planes are not parallel, then they intersect in a staight line.
• The angle between the two planes is defined as the acute angle between their nomal vectors.

12.6 Cylinder and Quadric Surfaces（柱面和二次曲面）

Cylinder

A cylinder is a surface that consists all lines (called rulings) that are parallel to a given line（与给定直线平行） and pass through a given plane curve（通过给定平面曲线）.（直线沿着一条定曲线平行移动）

Cylinders occur naturally when we graph an equation in $R^3$ that involves just two variables.

Parabolic cylinder(抛物柱面)

$$z=x^2$$

Any vertical plane y = k intersects the graph in a curve with equation $z=x^2$

circular cylinder(圆柱面)

$$x^2+y^2=1$$

Any vertical plane z = k intersects the graph in a curve with equation $x^2+y^2=1$.

Quadric Surface

A quadric surface is the graph of a second-degree equation in three variables x, y and z, the most general such equation is

$$A{x}^2+B{y}^2+C{z}^2+Dxy+Eyz+Fxz+Gx+Hy+Iz+J=0.$$

Two standard form:

$$A{x}^2+B{y}^2+C{z}^2+J=0,A{x}^2+B{y}^2+Iz=0.$$

Ellipsoid(椭球体)

$$\frac{x^2}{a^2}+\frac{y^2}{b^2}+\frac{z^2}{c^2}=1$$

Plane	Cross Section
xy-plane	Ellipse
xz-plane	Ellipse
yz-plane	Ellipse
Parallel to xy-plane	Ellipse
Parallel to xz-plane	Ellipse
Parallel to yz-plane	Ellipse

Hyperboloid of One Sheet(单叶双曲面)

$$\frac{x^2}{a^2}+\frac{y^2}{b^2}-\frac{z^2}{c^2}=1$$

Plane	Cross Section
xy-plane	Ellipse
xz-plane	Hyperbola
yz-plane	Hyperbola
Parallel to xy-plane	Ellipse
Parallel to xz-plane	Hyperbola
Parallel to yz-plane	Hyperbola

Hyperboloid of Two Sheet(双叶双曲面)

$$\frac{x^2}{a^2}-\frac{y^2}{b^2}-\frac{z^2}{c^2}=1$$

Plane	Cross Section
xy-plane	Hyperbola
xz-plane	Hyperbola
yz-plane	Empty
Parallel to xy-plane	Hyperbola
Parallel to xz-plane	Hyperbola
Parallel to yz-plane	Ellipse

Elliptic Paraboloid(椭圆抛物面)

$$z=\frac{x^2}{a^2}+\frac{y^2}{b^2}$$

Plane	Cross Section
xy-plane	Point
xz-plane	Parabola
yz-plane	Parabola
Parallel to xy-plane	Ellipse
Parallel to xz-plane	Parabola
Parallel to yz-plane	Parabola

Hyperbolic Paraboloid(双曲抛物面/马鞍面)

$$z=\frac{y^2}{b^2}-\frac{x^2}{a^2}$$

Plane	Cross Section
xy-plane	Intersecting lines
xz-plane	Parabola
yz-plane	Parabola
Parallel to xy-plane	Hyperbola
Parallel to xz-plane	Parabola
Parallel to yz-plane	Parabola

Elliptic Cone(椭圆锥面)

$$\frac{x^2}{a^2}+\frac{y^2}{b^2}-\frac{z^2}{c^2}=0$$

Plane	Cross Section
xy-plane	Point
xz-plane	Intersecting lines
yz-plane	Intersecting lines
Parallel to xy-plane	Ellipse
Parallel to xz-plane	Hyperbola
Parallel to yz-plane	Hyperbola