“The Lost Words of La Malinche“ -1

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"The Lost Words of La Malinche" 的意思

"The Lost Words of La Malinche" 这个词组指的是，La Malinche（也叫做Malintzin或Doña Marina）的声音、视角和历史意义在历史的流传中被忽视或误解。La Malinche是一个土著女性，她在西班牙征服者——尤其是赫尔南·科尔特斯（Hernán Cortés）——与阿兹特克人之间担任了翻译和中介的关键角色。

解释：

La Malinche 在许多历史叙述中被描绘成背叛自己民族的叛徒，或者被视为受害者。然而，“失落的语言”这一表述象征着她真实角色的消失，以及她作为翻译者的身份被过度简化的情况。
失落的语言 也涉及了西班牙人和土著人之间沟通的主题，表现了语言障碍和文化差异如何影响他们的互动。

总结：

"The Lost Words of La Malinche" 意味着La Malinche的叙述被遗失、被误解，呼吁人们重新审视她的历史角色及其影响。

The Myth of (Mis)Communication
When the friar reached [Atahuallpa], he told him . . . that he was a priest of God who preached His law and strove wherever possible for peace rather than war because that pleased God very much. While he was saying this, he held his breviary in his hands. Atahuallpa listened to this as something of a mockery. Through the interpreter he understood everything well.
—Pedro de Cieza de León (1550)
西班牙传教士与阿塔瓦尔帕的对话：
当这位修士到达[阿塔瓦尔帕]面前时，他告诉他……他是上帝的牧师，宣讲上帝的法则，并尽可能努力追求和平，而不是战争，因为这非常得上帝喜悦。在他说这些话时，他手中拿着他的祷告书。阿塔瓦尔帕听这些话时，觉得有些讽刺。他通过翻译者完全听懂了这些话。
— 皮德罗·德·塞萨·德·莱昂（1550年）

Sir, as I understand it, they are not contrary, nor do they behave badly on purpose, but it is because they cannot comprehend you, which they earnestly strive to do.
—The Calusa ruler in Florida,
to Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda (1575)
佛罗里达的卡卢萨酋长对西班牙征服者的看法：
“先生，据我所知，他们不是故意反对你，也没有故意表现得不好，而是因为他们无法理解你，但他们正在努力做到这一点。”
— 卡卢萨酋长对赫尔南多·德·埃斯卡兰特·丰塔内达（1575年）

They were all groping in the darkness, because they did not understand what the Indians were saying.
—Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas (1559)
巴托洛梅·德·拉斯·卡萨斯的评价：
“他们都在黑暗中摸索，因为他们不理解印第安人说的话。”
— 巴托洛梅·德·拉斯·卡萨斯（1559年）

It was absurd, unwieldy, a translator’s nightmare, an epistemological maze which we can only wonder at as we recall that each time Cortés said this, or Moctezuma said that, their words were conveyed through this trilingual chain of voices.
—Anna Lanyon (1999)
安娜·兰侬的评论：
“这太荒谬了，笨拙无比，简直是翻译者的噩梦，是一个认知迷宫，我们只能惊叹，每次科尔特斯说这些，或者莫克特祖马说那些时，他们的话都是通过这条三语链传递的。”
— 安娜·兰侬（1999年）

通俗解释：

Pedro de Cieza de León（1550）：西班牙的传教士尝试用和平的语言向印加皇帝Atahuallpa传达基督教的教义，并且希望能传递上帝喜悦的和平信息。但Atahuallpa觉得这些话是嘲笑他，尽管他通过翻译理解了传教士的意思。
通俗说法：传教士用基督教的和平理念与阿塔瓦尔帕交流，想向他传达“和平胜过战争”的信息，但由于文化差异，阿塔瓦尔帕认为这是在讽刺他。
The Calusa ruler in Florida（1575）：佛罗里达的卡卢萨酋长解释，印第安人并非故意与西班牙人作对，他们只是不理解西班牙人的语言，尽管他们很努力地想去理解。
通俗说法：酋长告诉西班牙人，印第安人并不是敌对他们，而是因为语言不通，他们尽力去理解。
Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas（1559）：西班牙的神父巴托洛梅·德·拉斯·卡萨斯提到，西班牙征服者们在与印第安人沟通时，完全不能理解印第安人说的话。
通俗说法：神父描述了西班牙人和印第安人之间的沟通障碍，导致双方都感到困惑。
Anna Lanyon（1999）：安娜·兰侬形容了一个复杂的翻译过程，在这个过程中，西班牙征服者与印第安人通过三重翻译交流，这种沟通方式就像一个迷宫。
通俗说法：安娜形容了西班牙人和印第安人之间的交流困难，每次要经过三重翻译，搞得像是迷宫一样复杂。

预测多选题：

What was the key problem highlighted in the quotes from historical figures?
- a) The difference in languages and the difficulty in understanding each other
- b) The intention to promote peace through religious messages
- c) The effective communication between different cultures
- d) The refusal of the indigenous people to communicate with the Spaniards
正确答案：a) The difference in languages and the difficulty in understanding each other
Why did the Calusa ruler explain that the indigenous people were not behaving badly toward the Spaniards?
- a) They were intentionally disrespecting the Spaniards
- b) They simply couldn't understand the Spaniards, but they tried hard to
- c) They were afraid of the Spaniards
- d) They did not want to accept the Spaniards' religion
正确答案：b) They simply couldn't understand the Spaniards, but they tried hard to

段2：中英对照翻译：

背景知识：

**莫克特苏马（Moctezuma II）与科尔特斯（Hernán Cortés）**是16世纪墨西哥历史上两位关键人物，他们的相遇标志着西班牙征服印第安帝国的开端。

莫克特苏马（Moctezuma II）：

身份：莫克特苏马二世是阿兹特克帝国（又称墨西哥帝国）的第九任皇帝。
统治时间：他在1502年到1520年之间统治阿兹特克帝国。
背景与成就：
- 他是阿兹特克帝国最著名的皇帝之一，统治期间帝国达到了其最大范围。
- 他推动了文化和宗教的改革，并增加了对地方的统治力。
- 在他统治下，阿兹特克帝国的社会、文化和宗教生活都高度发达，尤其是在建筑、天文学和农业等领域。
与科尔特斯的关系：莫克特苏马与西班牙征服者科尔特斯的会面是在1521年西班牙入侵墨西哥的前奏。他的帝国遭遇了西班牙征服，并最终在科尔特斯的领导下被摧毁，莫克特苏马也因此失去了生命。尽管最初他试图与科尔特斯和解，但很快局势恶化，导致了最终的冲突。

科尔特斯（Hernán Cortés）：

身份：科尔特斯是西班牙征服者，因其领导西班牙征服阿兹特克帝国而闻名。
出生与背景：科尔特斯于1485年出生在西班牙的卡斯蒂利亚地区，起初在西印度群岛进行过几次探险。
征服阿兹特克帝国：
- 1519年，科尔特斯领导了一支小规模的西班牙远征队，登陆今天的墨西哥。
- 他通过与一些当地部落的联合以及一系列的策略，成功摧毁了强大的阿兹特克帝国。
- 通过与莫克特苏马的互动，科尔特斯利用阿兹特克帝国内部的政治矛盾及其宗教信仰，最终导致了帝国的衰落。
影响：
- 科尔特斯的征服使西班牙获得了大量的黄金、银矿资源，同时也开启了西班牙对美洲的殖民统治。
- 他的征服导致了阿兹特克文明的毁灭，西班牙文化和宗教在墨西哥广泛传播。

总结：

莫克特苏马是阿兹特克帝国的皇帝，他是一个富有权力和文化的领导者，但面对西班牙征服时未能有效抵抗。
科尔特斯是西班牙征服者，领导西班牙远征队侵占了墨西哥并摧毁了阿兹特克帝国，改变了整个美洲的历史走向。

这场历史性会面（1519年11月8日）标志着两个截然不同文化的直接碰撞，并最终导致阿兹特克文明的灭亡。

原文：

On the morning of 8 November 1519, on a causeway crossing Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico, a unique encounter in world history occurred. Moctezuma met Cortés.
1519年11月8日早晨，在墨西哥谷地的特斯科科湖上的一条堤道上，发生了世界历史上一次独特的邂逅。莫克特苏马与科尔特斯会面。

For centuries this meeting has been taken as symbolic of the great encounter of continents that was now in its third decade. And with good reason. For the very first time, a Native American emperor greeted a representative of the Europeans who had come to conquer and settle in his lands. The meeting was friendly, with both sides keen to display an unswerving commitment to diplomacy. Yet a clash of cultures was also immediately apparent. Within months the two sides would be locked in a bloody war that would lead to Moctezuma’s death and Cortés’s succeeding him as the most powerful man in central Mexico.
几个世纪以来，这次会面被视为象征着两个大陆之间伟大遭遇的标志，这一遭遇正处于它的第三个十年。如此解读是有充分理由的。因为这是第一次，一位美洲土著帝王迎接一位代表来征服并定居在自己土地上的欧洲人。这次会面友好，双方都渴望表现出对外交的坚定承诺。然而，文化冲突也立刻显现。几个月后，双方将陷入一场血腥的战争，这场战争将导致莫克特苏马的死亡，科尔特斯随后成为墨西哥中部最有权势的人。

At first, Moctezuma was aloft on a litter, and Cortés on horseback—as depicted in the highly stylized screen painting of the encounter by Juan Correa (see Figure 9). When the Mexica monarch descended onto the causeway and walked with his entourage toward the Spaniards, Cortés likewise dismounted and approached Moctezuma.
最初，莫克特苏马坐在抬轿上，而科尔特斯骑马——正如胡安·科雷亚所绘的那幅高度程式化的会面画作所展示的（见图9）。当墨西哥皇帝从轿子上下来，带着随从走向西班牙人时，科尔特斯也下马，走向莫克特苏马。

At this point, accounts diverge a little, but the tension is tangible in all versions. According to Bernal Díaz, “Cortés, I think, offered Moctezuma his right hand, but Moctezuma refused it and extended his own.” Gómara glosses over the awkward moment by stating simply that “the two men saluted each other.” Cortés himself makes no mention of hands, but confesses that he “stepped forward to embrace [Moctezuma], but the two lords who were with him stopped me with their hands so that I should not touch him.” Díaz and Gómara also mention the aborted hug (that would have been, in Mexica eyes, “an indignity,” wrote the former, and “a sin,” according to the latter), albeit in a different sequence to the aborted handshake and an exchange of necklaces. Díaz also states that the two leaders “bowed deeply” to each other, but Gómara and Cortés omit this detail.
在这个时刻，各方记载有所不同，但所有版本中都能感受到紧张气氛。根据伯纳尔·迪亚兹的说法，“我想，科尔特斯伸出了右手给莫克特苏马，但莫克特苏马拒绝了，伸出了自己的手。”戈马拉简略地提到这个尴尬的时刻，只是说“这两位男子互相致意。”科尔特斯本人没有提到手，但他承认自己“上前想要拥抱[莫克特苏马]，但跟随他的两位领主用手阻止了我，不让我碰他。”迪亚兹和戈马拉也提到未遂的拥抱（这在墨西哥人眼中是“一种侮辱”，前者写道，而戈马拉则认为“是罪行”），尽管这一描述的顺序与未遂握手和交换项链有所不同。迪亚兹还表示，两位领袖互相“深深鞠躬”，但戈马拉和科尔特斯并未提及这一细节。

An illustration that appeared in various European publications during the colonial period (Figure 10 is one example) attempted to portray the Gómara-Díaz version of the encounter.
在殖民时期出现在多本欧洲出版物中的一幅插图（图10为例）试图描绘戈马拉-迪亚兹版本的会面。

A pair of other sixteenth-century versions of the encounter are worth mentioning—the Nahuatl and Spanish texts in Sahagún’s Florentine Codex. In these texts, there are no attempted embraces or hand clasps, and the giving of necklaces to Cortés by Moctezuma is not reciprocated by the Spaniard. Nor is the bow reciprocal. In the Nahuatl text, the Mexica emperor “bowed deeply to” Cortés; “thereupon he stood up straight, he stood up with their faces meeting . . . he stretched as far as he could, standing stiffly.” As it was forbidden to look the emperor in the face, the text suggests that Moctezuma took the initiative in breaking the taboo, permitting Cortés to look right at him, attempting to meet him at a cultural halfway point. The parallel Spanish text conveys the same impression, but in a way that subordinates Moctezuma, whose gracious bow becomes a submissive kowtow: “Then he prostrated himself before the captain, doing him great reverence, and then he raised himself face to face with the captain, very close to him.”
另外有两种十六世纪的会面版本值得一提——来自萨哈贡《佛罗伦萨法典》中的纳瓦特尔文和西班牙文。在这些文献中，没有尝试拥抱或握手，莫克特苏马赠送给科尔特斯项链的行为也没有得到西班牙人的回馈。鞠躬也不是互相的。在纳瓦特尔文中，墨西哥皇帝“深深鞠躬”向科尔特斯致敬；“然后他站直了，站立时他们的面孔互相对视……他尽力伸展，身体僵硬。”由于禁止直视皇帝面孔，文本暗示莫克特苏马主动打破这一禁忌，允许科尔特斯直视自己，试图在文化上达成某种折衷。相应的西班牙文文本传达了相同的印象，但方式却显得有些贬低莫克特苏马，他那优雅的鞠躬变成了屈服的叩拜：“然后他在队长面前俯身，表示极大的敬意，接着他站起身，与队长面对面，距离非常接近。”

通俗解释：

事件背景： 1519年11月8日，墨西哥的特斯科科湖上的堤道上，发生了历史性的事件。墨西哥帝国的皇帝莫克特苏马与西班牙征服者科尔特斯会面，这是美洲土著皇帝与欧洲征服者首次的会晤。

会面氛围： 最初，这次会面友好且充满外交色彩，双方都表现出和平交往的意图。然而，这种友好表面下的文化差异很快显现出来。几个月后，双方将陷入激烈的冲突，最终导致莫克特苏马的死亡和科尔特斯掌握墨西哥中部的权力。

文化冲突： 会面时，莫克特苏马坐在抬轿上，而科尔特斯骑马。当莫克特苏马下车走向西班牙人时，科尔特斯也下马迎接他。关于他们的互动，不同的历史记载有不同的描述。比如，有记录称科尔特斯曾尝试伸出右手与莫克特苏马握手，但莫克特苏马拒绝了并伸出了自己的手。

文化表现差异： 在墨西哥皇帝的文化中，直视皇帝是不允许的。然而，莫克特苏马主动突破这一禁忌，允许科尔特斯直视自己，这可能代表了一种文化上的折中和妥协。而西班牙的记录则把莫克特苏马的鞠躬行为描述为一种屈服，表现出不同文化对同一行为的不同解读。

预测的多选题：

What symbolic event does the encounter between Moctezuma and Cortés represent?
- A) The peaceful coexistence of two cultures
- B) The beginning of the European conquest of the Americas
- C) The collapse of the Aztec Empire
- D) The first meeting of two distinct civilizations

答案：B, D

How did Moctezuma and Cortés greet each other according to various accounts?
- A) They embraced each other
- B) They exchanged handshakes
- C) Moctezuma bowed deeply to Cortés
- D) They saluted each other
答案：B, C, D
What cultural taboo did Moctezuma break during the meeting?
- A) He offered food to Cortés
- B) He allowed Cortés to look at him directly in the face
- C) He refused to bow
- D) He touched Cortés
答案：B
How is the bowing of Moctezuma interpreted in the Spanish text?
- A) As a sign of respect
- B) As a submissive act
- C) As a diplomatic gesture
- D) As an insult to Cortés
答案：B

抱歉，我明白了。接下来我会提供中英对照翻译。

段3：中英对照翻译：

这些几分钟和几个动作唤起了本章主题——沟通与误解的主题。

These few minutes and these few gestures evoke much of the theme of communication and miscommunication that is the topic of this chapter.

一方面，有沟通；每位领袖都成功地传达了对方他所处的权威地位，并且表达了希望这次会面友好且充满相互尊重的愿望。

On the one hand, there is communication; each leader successfully conveys to the other both his position of authority and his desire for their meeting to be friendly and imbued（浸染） with mutual respect.

另一方面，也存在误解，两位领导者在努力找到两种不同文化的交流和对待方式的共同点时，陷入了困境。

On the other hand, there is miscommunication, as the two struggle to find common ground between two different cultures of lordly address and treatment.

仿佛这些肢体动作的困惑还不够，当至少五个不同的事件记录者的立场和目标被加入其中时，事情变得更加复杂。

As if the confusion of gestures was not enough, there is further clutter added by the leanings and agendas of the authors of at least five different accounts of the event, each offering a different balance between emphasizing the regality of Moctezuma’s diplomatic welcome and suggesting that the welcome contained the seeds of surrender.

当考虑到所说的话时，情景变得更加复杂。

The scene becomes more complicated still when what was said is considered.

在《佛罗伦萨法典》的记载中，科尔特斯问戴在他脖子上的项链的那位领导人是否真的是皇帝，得到的回答是“yo soy Motecuçoma”（西班牙文为“我就是莫克特苏马”）或“ca quemaca ca nehoatl”（纳瓦特尔语为“是我”）。

In the Florentine Codex accounts, Cortés asks if the lord placing necklaces around his neck is really the emperor, to which the reply is yo soy Motecuçoma (in the Spanish text, “I am Moctezuma”) or ca quemaca ca nehoatl (in the Nahuatl text, “Yes, it is me”).

然后莫克特苏马发表了精彩的演讲，科尔特斯简短地回应了一些友好的话。

Moctezuma then delivers a splendid speech, to which Cortés replies with some brief reassurances of friendship.

在戈马拉、迪亚兹和科尔特斯的记载中，两位领导者仅在堤道上交换了简短的问候，随后由高级的墨西哥领主重复莫克特苏马的问候。

In the accounts by Gómara, Díaz, and Cortés, the leaders exchange no more than brief greetings on the causeway, and the Mexica emperor’s greeting is then repeated by the senior Mexica lords.

莫克特苏马的长篇演讲和科尔特斯的回应是在西班牙人被带到特诺奇蒂特兰的住所并稍作休息和进餐后才进行的。

Moctezuma’s great speech and Cortés’s reply are not delivered until the Spaniards have been led to their accommodations in Tenochtitlán and left to eat and rest a while.

那么，这一切对话是如何完成的呢？

How is all this dialogue achieved?

迪亚兹在整个事件中仅提到一次，科尔特斯是通过“多娜·玛丽娜”来交流的，而戈马拉则提到，莫克特苏马的演讲是通过“玛丽娜和阿吉拉尔”（科尔特斯的翻译）来进行的。

Díaz mentions once during the whole episode that Cortés was “speaking through doña Marina,” and Gómara remarks once that Moctezuma made his speech by “speaking through Marina and Aguilar” (Cortés’s interpreters).

科尔特斯自己则没有提到翻译，好像他和莫克特苏马能说同样的语言。

Cortés makes no mention of an interpreter, as though he and the Mexica emperor spoke the same language.

人们不禁想起老式好莱坞电影中，虽然人物讲的是不同的语言，但却用不同口音说英语的情节。

One is reminded of old Hollywood movies, in which different languages are reduced to English spoken in different accents.

《佛罗伦萨法典》则更为清楚，表示在莫克特苏马对科尔特斯演讲后，“玛丽娜（马林奇）将其翻译给他。等到马尔凯斯（科尔特斯）听完莫特苏马的话后，他对玛丽娜回复，用他那不太流利的语言回话”（来自纳瓦特尔文版本）。

The Florentine Codex is clearer, stating that after Moctezuma’s speech to Cortés, “Marina [Malintzin] reported it to him, interpreting it for him. And when the Marqués [Cortés] had heard what Moctezuma had said, he spoke to Marina in return, babbling back to them, replying in his babbling tongue” (from the Nahuatl version).

为了说明这一过程，《法典》中的一幅插图描绘了一位站在一群西班牙人和一群墨西哥人之间的本地女性，墨西哥人的领袖是皇帝（见图9）。

To illustrate this process, one of the drawings that accompanied the texts of the Codex depicts a native woman standing between a group of Spaniards and a group of Mexica, headed by the emperor (see Figure 9).

这位既能讲纳瓦特尔语又能讲西班牙语“咿呀”话的本地女性是谁？

Who was this native Nahuatl-speaker who also spoke the Spanish “babble?”

为什么她会被称为“多娜·玛丽娜”——一个西班牙贵妇的名字？

Why was she called “doña Marina,” a Spanish noblewoman’s name?

多娜·玛丽娜就是马林奇，或称拉·马林奇，她是来自中墨西哥纳瓦特尔语区东部的纳瓦族贵族女性。

Doña Marina was Malinche, or La Malinche, a Nahua noblewoman from the eastern edge of Nahuatl-speaking central Mexico.

她小时候要么被奴隶贩子绑架，要么被卖为奴隶，最终流落到更东边的乔恩塔尔玛雅人那里，那里的小王国位于墨西哥湾沿岸。

As a child she was either stolen by slave traders or sold into slavery, and ended up among the Chontal Mayas whose small kingdom lay a little further east on the Gulf coast.

在1519年，她与其他19名本地女性一起被乔恩塔尔人赠送给科尔特斯及其同伴，作为和平协议的一部分，目的是鼓励西班牙人继续向西旅行。

In 1519 she was given by the Chontals along with 19 other native women to Cortés and his colleagues as part of a peace agreement, an inducement to the Spaniards to keep traveling west.

她还在青少年时期，被洗礼为玛丽娜，并被分配给了远征队的其中一位队长，阿隆索·埃尔南德斯·德·普尔托卡雷罗。

Still a teenager, she was baptized Marina and assigned to one of the captains of the expedition, Alonso Hernández de Puertocarrero.

通俗解释：

这段描述讲的是1519年科尔特斯与墨西哥皇帝莫克特苏马之间的会面。尽管会面表面上是友好的，双方展示了对外交的尊重，但也充满了文化误解。在这个过程中，两位领袖通过肢体语言和对话来展现各自的文化背景和权威。

特别重要的是多娜·玛丽娜（La Malinche），她是一位纳瓦族女性，本应是一个奴隶，但她成为了科尔特斯的重要翻译和文化中介。在这种历史背景下，多娜·玛丽娜的角色非常重要，她不仅帮助科尔特斯与莫克特苏马沟通，还在整个征服过程中发挥了关键作用。

好的，我将为您提供每个问题的答案和详细解析，并包括中文翻译。

多选题预测及答案解析：

What was the primary theme of the encounter between Moctezuma and Cortés?
Primary theme: Communication and Miscommunication

答案：
- a) Communication
- b) Miscommunication
解析：
在科尔特斯与莫克特苏马的会面中，表面上存在沟通（双方传达了彼此的尊重与友好），但实际上也充满了误解（由于文化差异，彼此的态度和方式并未完全对接）。因此，沟通与误解是会面中的主要主题。
原文：
These few minutes and these few gestures evoke much of the theme of communication and miscommunication that is the topic of this chapter.

中文翻译：
这些几分钟和几个动作唤起了本章主题——沟通与误解的主题。

Who was Doña Marina, also known as La Malinche?
Answer:
- b) A Nahua noblewoman from central Mexico
解析：
多娜·玛丽娜（La Malinche）是来自中墨西哥的纳瓦族贵族女性。她在被俘后被卖为奴隶，最终成为科尔特斯的翻译和文化中介。
原文：
Doña Marina was Malinche, or La Malinche, a Nahua noblewoman from the eastern edge of Nahuatl-speaking central Mexico.

中文翻译：
多娜·玛丽娜就是马林奇，或称拉·马林奇，她是来自中墨西哥纳瓦特尔语区东部的纳瓦族贵族女性。

What role did Doña Marina play in the meeting between Moctezuma and Cortés?
Answer:
- a) She acted as an intermediary
解析：
多娜·玛丽娜在科尔特斯与莫克特苏马的会面中充当了中介的角色，作为翻译，她帮助两位领导者之间的沟通。
原文：
Díaz mentions once during the whole episode that Cortés was “speaking through doña Marina,” and Gómara remarks once that Moctezuma made his speech by “speaking through Marina and Aguilar” (Cortés’s interpreters).

中文翻译：
迪亚兹在整个事件中仅提到一次，科尔特斯是通过“多娜·玛丽娜”来交流的，而戈马拉则提到，莫克特苏马的演讲是通过“玛丽娜和阿吉拉尔”（科尔特斯的翻译）来进行的。

How was Moctezuma’s speech interpreted to Cortés?
Answer:
- b) Through Doña Marina and other translators
解析：
莫克特苏马的演讲是通过多娜·玛丽娜和其他翻译人员转述给科尔特斯的，而不是直接沟通。
原文：
The Florentine Codex is clearer, stating that after Moctezuma’s speech to Cortés, “Marina [Malintzin] reported it to him, interpreting it for him.”

中文翻译：
《佛罗伦萨法典》则更为清楚，表示在莫克特苏马对科尔特斯演讲后，“玛丽娜（马林奇）将其翻译给他。”

总结：

主要主题是沟通与误解，涉及不同文化的交流差异。
多娜·玛丽娜是来自中墨西哥的纳瓦族贵族女性，她成为了科尔特斯的翻译。
她的角色是充当了中介，帮助沟通。
莫克特苏马的演讲是通过多娜·玛丽娜等翻译人员转述的。

段4：中英对照翻译：

原文：

Within a month Cortés had taken Marina back. It was discovered that she was able to converse with the “Indians” through whose territory the Spaniards were now moving, whereas their language, Nahuatl, was unknown to Gerónimo de Aguilar—the Maya-speaking Spaniard shipwrecked off the coast of Yucatan in 1511, rescued by Cortés earlier in 1519, and then serving as the expedition’s interpreter. After just a few weeks as Puertocarrero’s servant and perhaps his involuntary mistress, Marina knew little or no Spanish. But, like Aguilar, she had learned Yucatec as a slave among Mayas, and so Cortés could now communicate with Nahuatl-speaking lords and Mexica emissaries through the Maya of Aguilar and Marina.

中文翻译：不到一个月，科尔特斯就带回了玛丽娜。人们发现她能够与西班牙人正在穿越的“印第安人”交流，而他们的语言——纳瓦特尔语——对于讲玛雅语的杰罗尼莫·阿吉拉尔来说是陌生的。阿吉拉尔是1511年在尤卡坦海岸遇难的西班牙人，后来在1519年被科尔特斯救起，并成为远征队的翻译。玛丽娜刚成为普尔托卡雷罗的仆人，或许还成了他的非自愿情妇时，几乎不懂西班牙语。然而，就像阿吉拉尔一样，她在玛雅人中当过奴隶，并学会了尤卡坦玛雅语，因此科尔特斯现在能够通过阿吉拉尔和玛丽娜的玛雅语与讲纳瓦特尔语的领主和墨西哥使者沟通。

通俗解释：

玛丽娜的作用：
- 玛丽娜在西班牙人和当地印第安人之间起到了非常重要的桥梁作用。最开始她几乎不会说西班牙语，但是她会尤卡坦玛雅语，而这使她成为了科尔特斯与印第安部落之间沟通的关键。
- 她的快速学习能力，使得她成为了科尔特斯远征队中的重要人物，不仅在语言交流中起到了关键作用，还帮助西班牙人与不同的印第安部落建立联系。
科尔特斯的态度：
- 尽管科尔特斯在他的信件中提到玛丽娜时并未给予她太多的认可，称她为“我的翻译，一个印第安女人”，但实际上玛丽娜的贡献对远征的成功至关重要。
- 科尔特斯并没有让玛丽娜离开他的视线，尤其是在战争和行军过程中，玛丽娜的角色非常重要，后来他们之间的关系也变得更为亲密。

多选题预测：

What was the primary role of Doña Marina in the Spanish expedition?
- a) Translator between the Spaniards and indigenous peoples
- b) A warrior fighting alongside the Spaniards
- c) A political leader in the Mexica society
- d) A servant to the Spanish leaders
答案： a) Translator between the Spaniards and indigenous peoples
解析：玛丽娜作为远征队的翻译，起到了连接西班牙人与印第安人之间的沟通桥梁作用，她的语言能力使得西班牙人能够与当地部落进行交流。

How did Marina learn the languages that enabled her to assist Cortés?
- a) She learned Spanish in Spain before the expedition
- b) She learned Maya as a slave among the Mayans
- c) She learned Nahuatl from the Mexica people
- d) She already spoke Nahuatl when she joined Cortés’s expedition
答案： b) She learned Maya as a slave among the Mayans
解析：玛丽娜在玛雅人中当过奴隶，因此她会尤卡坦玛雅语，这使得她能够帮助西班牙人与讲纳瓦特尔语的印第安人进行交流。

What was Cortés’s attitude towards Marina during the expedition?
- a) He gave her full credit for her contributions
- b) He did not mention her in his letters
- c) He treated her as an equal member of the expedition
- d) He kept her under strict supervision at all times
答案： b) He did not mention her in his letters
解析：科尔特斯在信中很少提到玛丽娜，甚至将她描述为“我的翻译，一个印第安女人”。他对她的贡献并没有给予充分的认可。

What language did Marina help Cortés communicate with the Mexica lords?
- a) Spanish
- b) Nahuatl
- c) Maya
- d) Portuguese
答案： c) Maya
解析：玛丽娜通过玛雅语帮助科尔特斯与讲纳瓦特尔语的墨西哥领主和使者沟通，因此她在语言上成为了关键角色。

总结：

通过这段历史事件的描述，我们可以看到玛丽娜不仅仅是科尔特斯的翻译员，她的语言能力和在特殊情况下的机智也为西班牙人打开了与当地文化的交流窗口。尽管科尔特斯并未完全给她应得的荣誉，但她在远征中的贡献无疑是不可忽视的。

段5：中英对照翻译：

原文：
Within a month Cortés had taken Marina back. It was discovered that she was able to converse with the “Indians” through whose territory the Spaniards were now moving, whereas their language, Nahuatl, was unknown to Gerónimo de Aguilar—the Maya-speaking Spaniard shipwrecked off the coast of Yucatan in 1511, rescued by Cortés earlier in 1519, and then serving as the expedition’s interpreter. After just a few weeks as Puertocarrero’s servant and perhaps his involuntary mistress, Marina knew little or no Spanish. But, like Aguilar, she had learned Yucatec as a slave among Mayas, and so Cortés could now communicate with Nahuatl-speaking lords and Mexica emissaries through the Maya of Aguilar and Marina.

中文翻译：
不到一个月，科尔特斯就带回了玛丽娜。人们发现她能够与西班牙人正在穿越的“印第安人”交流，而他们的语言——纳瓦特尔语——对于讲玛雅语的杰罗尼莫·阿吉拉尔来说是陌生的。阿吉拉尔是1511年在尤卡坦海岸遇难的西班牙人，后来在1519年被科尔特斯救起，并成为远征队的翻译。玛丽娜刚成为普尔托卡雷罗的仆人，或许还成了他的非自愿情妇时，几乎不懂西班牙语。然而，就像阿吉拉尔一样，她在玛雅人中当过奴隶，并学会了尤卡坦玛雅语，因此科尔特斯现在能够通过阿吉拉尔和玛丽娜的玛雅语与讲纳瓦特尔语的领主和墨西哥使者沟通。

原文：
Marina appears to have risen to the occasion, seizing the opportunity to improve her grim situation by making herself an invaluable member of the expedition. She soon learned Spanish, making Aguilar redundant as an interpreter probably sooner than Gómara recognized. Cortés gave Marina little credit, mentioning her in his letters to the king only twice, in 1520 as “my interpreter, who is an Indian woman,” and in 1526 as “Marina, who traveled always in my company after she had been given to me as a present.” Díaz was more accurate in according her the “doña” title, in recognition not just of her noble native origins but of the respect she earned among the Spaniards for her loyalty, tenacity, and intelligence—that Díaz claimed saved the expedition on a number of occasions.

中文翻译：
玛丽娜似乎迎难而上，抓住机会通过使自己成为远征队不可或缺的成员来改善她那艰难的境遇。她很快学会了西班牙语，可能比戈马拉所认识的还要早，使阿吉拉尔作为翻译的角色变得多余。科尔特斯对玛丽娜的贡献几乎没有给予任何认可，仅在1520年和1526年的信中提到她两次，分别称她为“我的翻译，一个印第安女人”和“玛丽娜，送给我作为礼物后一直跟随我的人”。迪亚兹在给予她“多娜”称号时更为准确，不仅承认了她贵族的本土出身，还承认了她在西班牙人中赢得的尊敬，这种尊敬来源于她的忠诚、毅力和智慧——迪亚兹曾称这些品质在多个场合拯救了远征队。

原文：
The Mexica and other Nahuas also recognized her status, giving her name the Nahuatl honorific suffix of –tzin that turned “Marina” into Malintzin, which the Spaniards heard as “Malinche.” The Nahuas soon dubbed Cortés himself with the name of Malinche, as though captain and interpreter were one. Indeed, Cortés never seems to have let Malinche out of his sight, according to Díaz and judging from contemporary illustrations (Figures 9 and 11 are examples). It also seems likely that she was not required to be his mistress during the march to Tenochtitlán and subsequent Spanish-Mexica war; she was too valuable to Cortés for him to risk her becoming pregnant. Significantly, she bore him a son ten months after the fall of Tenochtitlán, suggesting their relationship became sexual as soon as her role as interpreter ceased to be crucial to Spanish success.

中文翻译：
墨西哥人和其他纳瓦特尔族人也认同她的地位，给她的名字加上了纳瓦特尔语的尊称后缀——tzin，这使得“玛丽娜”变成了“马林特辛”，西班牙人听到这个名字后称其为“马林切”。纳瓦特尔人很快给科尔特斯起了个“马林切”的名字，好像队长和翻译员是一个人一样。实际上，科尔特斯似乎从未让马林切离开自己的视线，根据迪亚兹的记载以及当时的插图（图9和图11是例子）。看起来她在前往特诺奇蒂特兰的行军和随后的西班牙-墨西哥战争期间并不需要成为科尔特斯的情妇；她对科尔特斯太重要了，他不敢冒险让她怀孕。值得注意的是，在特诺奇蒂特兰陷落十个月后，她为科尔特斯生了一个儿子，这表明一旦她作为翻译员的角色不再对西班牙的成功至关重要，他们的关系就变得具有性别关系。

通俗解释：

玛丽娜的关键作用：
- 玛丽娜原本只是一个不懂西班牙语的玛雅奴隶，然而她迅速学会了西班牙语，并且通过与阿吉拉尔的玛雅语沟通，帮助科尔特斯与墨西哥的领主们建立了联系。她的语言能力使她成为远征队中不可替代的成员。
科尔特斯对玛丽娜的态度：
- 虽然科尔特斯在信中对玛丽娜的贡献没有给予太多认可，但实际上她的作用至关重要。她不仅是翻译，还凭借她的忠诚和聪明才智在多次关键时刻帮助了西班牙人。
科尔特斯与玛丽娜的关系：
- 科尔特斯和玛丽娜的关系在一开始更多是基于她作为翻译员的角色。当她的翻译功能不再那么重要时，二人之间的关系可能发生了变化，甚至转为性关系。

多选题预测：

What was Marina’s contribution to Cortés’s expedition?
- a) She acted as a translator between the Spaniards and indigenous groups.
- b) She helped in military strategies and tactics.
- c) She led the expedition after Cortés’s departure.
- d) She gathered intelligence about the Mexica and their plans.
答案： a) She acted as a translator between the Spaniards and indigenous groups.
解析：玛丽娜通过她的语言能力，在西班牙人与印第安人之间发挥了翻译桥梁的作用，是科尔特斯成功的重要原因之一。

How did the Mexica people perceive Marina?
- a) They saw her as a traitor to her people.
- b) They honored her by adding a suffix to her name.
- c) They considered her a prisoner of war.
- d) They gave her a role of leadership in their society.
答案： b) They honored her by adding a suffix to her name.
解析：纳瓦特尔人给玛丽娜的名字加上了尊称后缀“tzin”，表示她的地位和尊重。

What was the nature of Cortés’s relationship with Marina?
- a) They were partners in the leadership of the expedition.
- b) They had a purely professional relationship.
- c) Their relationship was sexual after her role as interpreter ended.
- d) Cortés treated her as a subordinate, never involving her personally.
答案： c) Their relationship was sexual after her role as interpreter ended.
解析：随着玛丽娜作为翻译员的角色变得不再至关重要，她与科尔特斯之间的关系转变为性关系。

段6：中英对照翻译：

原文：
Had Malinche earned Cortés’s respect as she did Bernal Díaz’s? Perhaps, as he named their son after his father, Martín, had him legitimized, and seemed to favor him. For the remainder of Malinche’s short life (she died in 1527 or 1528, still in her twenties), Cortés never seemed to cast her aside. She lived in his house in the new Mexico City (albeit with other women, including for a brief time his Spanish wife and three of Moctezuma’s daughters, one of whom also bore Cortés a child). And in 1524 he took her with him on an expedition to Honduras and en route arranged for her to marry a fairly high-ranking Spaniard and close associate of his, Juan de Jaramillo, bringing into the marriage a dowry of an encomienda provided by Cortés.

中文翻译：
玛丽娜是否像伯纳尔·迪亚兹那样赢得了科尔特斯的尊敬？或许是的，因为他给他们的儿子起名为马丁，以此向其父亲致敬，并为他合法化，看似偏爱他。在玛丽娜短暂的一生中（她于1527年或1528年去世，时年二十多岁），科尔特斯似乎从未抛弃她。她住在新墨西哥城的科尔特斯家中（尽管和其他几位女性一起，包括他短暂的西班牙妻子和莫克特苏马的三位女儿，其中一位也为科尔特斯生了孩子）。并且在1524年，科尔特斯带她一起去洪都拉斯远征途中，并安排她与他的亲密伙伴、较高职位的西班牙人胡安·哈拉米略结婚，这桩婚姻带有科尔特斯提供的恩赐地的陪嫁。

原文：
Malinche was a godsend for Cortés, as he urgently needed to be able to communicate with native leaders. But the communication system offered by Malinche and Aguilar was imperfect. The system embodied the same paradox of simultaneous communication and failure to communicate that was illustrated by the gestures made by Cortés and Moctezuma at their first encounter. For much of the long journey from the coast to the Valley of Mexico, Spaniards and natives played a version of the childhood game of telephone. For one simple piece of dialogue to be achieved, Cortés spoke in Spanish to Aguilar, Aguilar translated into Yucatec Maya, which Malinche then translated into Nahuatl, before repeating the process in reverse. Even once Malinche learned Spanish, how much must have been lost in the translation, in the reading of meaning into her words, in on-the-spot attempts to cross the cultural divide? What indeed were her actual words? They are, of course, lost to us, buried within the artifice of interpretation as reported in Spanish and Nahua accounts of the Conquest, hidden within the speech glyphs that emanate from her mouth in the illustrations of the Florentine Codex.

中文翻译：
玛丽娜对科尔特斯来说是上天赐予的福音，因为他迫切需要与土著领导人沟通。然而，玛丽娜和阿吉拉尔提供的沟通系统并不完美。这个系统体现了同时传递信息与沟通失败的悖论，就像科尔特斯和莫克特苏马在第一次会面时的手势所展示的那样。在从海岸到墨西哥谷的漫长旅程中，西班牙人和土著人几乎玩了一场类似儿童游戏“电话”的游戏。为了达成一个简单的对话，科尔特斯用西班牙语对阿吉拉尔说话，阿吉拉尔将其翻译成尤卡坦玛雅语，再由玛丽娜将其翻译成纳瓦特尔语，然后再反过来重复这个过程。即使玛丽娜学会了西班牙语，翻译中丢失了多少信息呢？她的语言背后的含义又有多少在翻译中丧失了？她真正说的话是什么？这些话当然已经失传，埋藏在西班牙人和纳瓦特尔人对于征服过程的解读中，隐藏在佛罗伦萨法典中的插图里，表现她嘴中所发出的言辞象形文字中。

原文：
The myth of this chapter is therefore the paradoxical myth of communication/miscommunication. Historically, the myth of communication was constructed by the conquistadors and predominated during Conquest and colonial times. The myth was convenient to Spaniards in that claims of communication with native peoples bolstered claims that natives were subjugated, co-opted, and converted. The questioning of that myth by modern scholars also has sixteenth-century roots, most notably in the writings of the Dominican friar Bartolomé de Las Casas, but has become so common in recent decades as to constitute its own countermyth. Perhaps the best-known articulation of the modern myth of miscommunication is by Tzvetan Todorov. The semiotics scholar contrasts Cortés, as a master reader of signs and information, with Columbus, who has no interest in communicating with Caribbean natives, and the Mexica, whose failure to read signs results in their downfall—conquest by (mis)communication. In other words, the invaders are either disinterested in communication, or they are so good at it that their skill defeats the natives. The themes of communication and miscommunication have therefore been misused as explanations of the Conquest. Through such usage they have become myths, and neither adequately explains Conquest outcomes. The remainder of this chapter details how the conquistadors generated the myth of communication, examines the arguments of the countermyth of miscommunication, and finally looks at several Conquest moments to suggest how a middle ground between the two extremes allows us to understand better how Spaniards and natives came to read each other’s intentions.

中文翻译：
因此，本章的神话是关于沟通/误解的悖论性神话。从历史上看，沟通的神话是由征服者们构建的，并在征服和殖民时期占主导地位。这个神话对西班牙人有利，因为他们声称与土著人进行沟通，从而支持了他们的主张，即土著人已经被征服、收编并转化为西班牙的信徒。现代学者对这一神话的质疑也有十六世纪的根源，最著名的就是多米尼加修士巴托洛梅·德·拉斯·卡萨斯的著作，但在近几十年里，这种质疑已变得如此普遍，以至于构成了自己的反神话。也许，最著名的现代误解神话的阐述来自捷尔凡·托多罗夫。这个符号学学者将科尔特斯与哥伦布进行对比，科尔特斯是一个善于解读符号和信息的大师，而哥伦布则对与加勒比土著人沟通毫无兴趣，墨西哥人由于无法解读符号而导致了他们的失败——征服通过（误）沟通。换句话说，侵略者要么对沟通不感兴趣，要么精通沟通，以至于他们的技巧战胜了土著人。因此，沟通和误解的主题已经被误用为征服的解释。通过这种方式，它们已经成为神话，而这些神话都无法充分解释征服的结果。本章的其余部分详细介绍了征服者如何产生沟通的神话，审视了误解反神话的论点，并最终探讨了几个征服时刻，提出如何在这两个极端之间找到一个中间立场，帮助我们更好地理解西班牙人和土著人如何解读彼此的意图。

通俗解释：

玛丽娜与科尔特斯的关系：
- 科尔特斯对玛丽娜的尊敬逐渐升高，尤其是在他们的儿子出生后，科尔特斯让他合法化，并显然偏爱他。玛丽娜和科尔特斯一起生活，但也有其他女性在场。科尔特斯甚至在1524年带她一起去洪都拉斯，并安排她与一位西班牙高官结婚。
沟通中的悖论：
- 玛丽娜和阿吉拉尔提供的翻译系统并不完美。这个过程就像儿童游戏“电话”，信息在不断的翻译中丧失或改变了含义。即使玛丽娜学会了西班牙语，跨文化的沟通仍然面临巨大挑战。
神话与误解的解释：
- “沟通”本身在历史上被当作征服的神话，被西班牙人用来证明他们成功地征服了土著人民。现代学者开始质疑这一神话，并提出反神话——误解。通过对历史和现代解释的结合，我们能够更清楚地看到征服过程中的复杂性。

神话与反神话解释：

神话（Myth）：
在这段历史中，"神话"指的是征服者（西班牙人）所创造的关于**“沟通”**的故事。西班牙人说，他们能够轻松地与土著人沟通，成功地让土著人接受他们的文化和语言。这个“沟通神话”被用来解释为什么西班牙能轻松征服土著人，认为征服是因为西班牙人有很强的沟通能力。
反神话（Counter-myth）：
随着时间的推移，现代学者（历史研究者）提出了与“沟通神话”相反的观点，这就是所谓的“反神话”。他们认为，实际情况是西班牙人与土著人之间的沟通并不顺畅，有很多误解和文化差异，所以征服并不是因为沟通顺畅，而是因为西班牙人有更强的武力和资源。

例如，虽然西班牙人与土著人通过翻译沟通，但因为语言和文化差异，很多信息丢失或传错了。西班牙人可能以为自己能顺利沟通，但实际的沟通过程往往是误解和信息失真的结果。

简单总结：

神话是说西班牙人和土著人之间的沟通很顺畅，帮助他们成功征服了土著人。
反神话是说，实际上沟通过程充满了误解和文化差异，沟通并没有那么容易，所以征服并不是因为沟通好，而是由于其他因素（如武力）。

Multiple Choice Questions (英文题目)

1. How did Cortés demonstrate his respect for Malinche?
(Select all that apply)

A. He arranged for her to marry a high-ranking Spaniard and provided her with a dowry.
B. He named their son Martín and had him legitimized.
C. He never showed any disinterest or abandonment toward her.
D. She was the only woman living with him in his house.

答案： A, B, C

解析：
Cortés对玛丽娜的尊重表现在多方面。他安排她与一位西班牙高官结婚，并为她提供了恩赐地（选项A）。他为他们的儿子起名为“马丁”，并将其合法化（选项B）。此外，他一直没有将她抛弃或表现出任何冷淡（选项C）。然而，玛丽娜并不是唯一居住在他家中的女性，因此选项D是不正确的。

2. What issues were present in the translation system used by Malinche and Aguilar?
(Select all that apply)

A. The translation system perfectly conveyed the messages without any misunderstanding.
B. A lot of information was lost or distorted during the translation process.
C. Malinche and Aguilar had to go through multiple stages of translation: from Spanish to Yucatec Maya and then to Nahuatl.
D. Even after Malinche learned Spanish, there were still significant cultural barriers to overcome in communication.

答案： B, C, D

解析：
玛丽娜和阿吉拉尔的翻译系统并不完美。首先，信息在语言之间传递时常常丧失或失真（选项B）。翻译过程复杂，包括西班牙语转尤卡坦玛雅语，再转纳瓦特尔语（选项C）。即便玛丽娜学会了西班牙语，文化差异依旧造成了沟通障碍（选项D）。选项A是错误的，因为沟通系统并不能完全避免误解。

3. How did the Spanish conquistadors use the myth of communication during the Conquest?
(Select all that apply)

A. They claimed successful communication with the native peoples, which helped justify their subjugation, co-option, and conversion.
B. The myth of communication helped the Spaniards claim their success in the conquest.
C. The Spaniards believed that the natives fully understood and accepted their culture and language.
D. The myth reflects the Spanish belief in their superior communication skills and cultural superiority.

答案： A, B, D

解析：
西班牙征服者利用“沟通神话”来证明他们与土著人民的成功交流，从而为征服、收编和转化提供正当理由（选项A）。这一神话帮助西班牙人宣扬他们在征服中的“成功”（选项B）。西班牙人认为他们的沟通技巧和文化优越性使得征服变得容易（选项D）。然而，西班牙人并没有认为土著人完全理解并接受他们的文化和语言，因此选项C是不正确的。

4. How do modern scholars question the "communication" myth?
(Select all that apply)

A. They introduced the counter-myth of miscommunication, suggesting that the conquest was driven by cultural and linguistic misunderstandings.
B. They argued that the conquest was due to the Spaniards' perfect communication abilities.
C. They emphasize that communication during the conquest was not just about language, but also involved understanding and interpreting cultural differences.
D. They believe that the failure of the Mexica to understand the signs from the Spaniards led to their downfall.

答案： A, C, D

解析：
现代学者对“沟通神话”提出质疑，并通过“误解反神话”指出，征服是由文化和语言上的误解引起的（选项A）。他们强调，征服过程中的沟通不仅仅是语言问题，还涉及文化理解和解释（选项C）。学者们认为，土著人未能理解西班牙人的意图，因此导致了他们的失败（选项D）。选项B不准确，因为现代学者并没有认为西班牙人的沟通能力是完美的。

段7：中英对照翻译：

Paragraph 1

English: Malinche's lost words are not only found between the lines of 16th-century texts or in the speech glyphs of the Florentine Codex. According to a traveler to Mexico City in the 1990s, Malinche's ghost still roams the corridors of a house where she once lived. Located on a street now named Republica de Cuba, the house has become a school, and some of the children there say they have heard Malinche "weeping as she walks along the balcony and through the rooms," as one little girl told the visitor.

Chinese: Malinche 遗失的话语不仅存在于 16 世纪文本的字里行间或佛罗伦萨手抄本的言语象形文字中。据 20 世纪 90 年代一位前往墨西哥城的旅行者所说，Malinche 的幽灵仍在她曾经居住过的一所房子的走廊里徘徊。这所房子位于现在名为古巴共和国的街道上，已经变成了一所学校，那里的一些孩子说他们听到 Malinche “在阳台和房间里走动时哭泣”，正如一个小女孩告诉那位来访者的一样。

Explanation: This paragraph tells us that Malinche's lost words are not just in old written records. There's a story from the 1990s about her ghost being seen in a house she used to live in. Now that house is a school, and some kids there claim to have heard her crying as she moves around.

Multiple-choice Prediction: Which of the following is true about the house on Republica de Cuba street? A. It's a museum now.
B. It's still a private residence.
C. It has become a school.
D. It was destroyed.
Answer: C. It has become a school.

Paragraph 2

English: The old house on Republica de Cuba is not the only place in Mexico City, or even in Mexico, where Malinche's ghost is heard. Her spirit, it seems, at some point in the past became intertwined with a Mexica legend that predates the Conquest and that in colonial times became known as La Llorona (The Weeping Woman). The conventions of the legend state that Malinche/La Llorona is lamenting her children, but her actual words go unreported. Like those of the real Malinche, they are lost in the wind.

Chinese: 古巴共和国街上的那所老房子并不是墨西哥城乃至整个墨西哥唯一能听到 Malinche 幽灵声音的地方。她的灵魂似乎在过去某个时候与一个墨西加传说纠缠在一起，这个传说早于征服时期，在殖民时代被称为 La Llorona（哭泣的女人）。根据传说的惯例，Malinche/La Llorona 在哀悼她的孩子，但她的真正话语没有被报道。就像真正的 Malinche 那样，它们在风中消失了。

Explanation: It's not just in that one house that people say they hear Malinche's ghost. Her spirit is connected to an old Mexica legend called La Llorona. In the story, she's supposed to be mourning her children, but what she really said is unknown, just like the real Malinche's words seem to have been lost.

Multiple-choice Prediction: What is the legend that Malinche's spirit is connected to? A. The legend of the Golden City.
B. The legend of La Llorona.
C. The legend of the Sleeping Giant.
D. The legend of the Lost Tribe.
Answer: B. The legend of La Llorona.

Paragraph 3

English: Malinche herself would have been completely lost to the siroccos of history were it not for her speech; her historical identity is based upon what she said. Yet because she spoke the words of others, as their interpreter, she is also strangely silent. This has allowed her to become many things to many people: a symbol of betrayal; an opportunistic sexual siren; a feminist icon; an Aztec goddess in disguise; the mother of the first mestizo, and thus of the Mexican nation; the ultimate rape victim of the Conquest. Almost all of this tells us much about modern Mexican history but little about the Conquest, especially as most of these interpretations, including all the negative ones, date from the dawn of Mexican Independence in the early 19th century.

Chinese: 如果不是因为她的言语，Malinche 本人可能会被历史的热风完全吹散；她的历史身份是基于她所说的话。然而，因为她作为他人的翻译说了别人的话，她又奇怪地沉默了。这使她成为了许多人眼中的许多事物：背叛的象征；机会主义的性感妖妇；女权主义偶像；伪装的阿兹特克女神；第一个混血儿的母亲，从而成为墨西哥民族的母亲；征服时期最终的强奸受害者。几乎所有这些都告诉我们很多关于现代墨西哥历史的事情，但对征服时期的事情却知之甚少，尤其是因为这些解释中的大多数，包括所有负面的解释，都始于 19 世纪初墨西哥独立的黎明时期。

Explanation: Malinche is known mainly for what she said, as an interpreter. But because she spoke for others, she's also seen as silent in a way. This has led to many different views of her. Some see her as a betrayer, some as a feminist symbol, and so on. These different views tell us more about modern Mexican history than about the time of the Conquest itself.

Multiple-choice Prediction: What does Malinche's image as a "feminist icon" tell us more about? A. The Conquest period.
B. Ancient Aztec society.
C. Modern Mexican history.
D. European medieval times.
Answer: C. Modern Mexican history.

Paragraph 4

English: In the 16th century Malinche was portrayed neither as victim nor as immoral, but as powerful. In the half a dozen or so illustrations of her in the Florentine Codex she always appears with the hairstyle and clothes of a noblewoman, and her name is always Malintzin, with reverential suffix (an honor likewise accorded to Cuauhtémoc but not always to Moctezuma). Bernal Díaz gave her high praise for her time. "Although a native woman," he wrote, doña Marina "possessed such manly valor . . . [and] betrayed no weakness but a courage greater than that of a woman."

Chinese: 在 16 世纪，Malinche 被描绘成既不是受害者也不是不道德的，而是强大的。在佛罗伦萨手抄本中大约六幅她的插图中，她总是以贵族妇女的发型和服装出现，她的名字总是带有尊敬后缀的 Malintzin（这一荣誉同样授予了 Cuauhtémoc，但并不总是授予 Moctezuma）。Bernal Díaz 对她当时的评价很高。他写道：“尽管是一位土著妇女，但 doña Marina 拥有如此男子气概的勇气……没有表现出任何软弱，只有超过女性的勇气。”

Explanation: In the 16th century, Malinche was shown as a powerful figure. In some old illustrations, she looked like a noblewoman. She was called Malintzin, a name with respect. Bernal Díaz spoke highly of her, saying she had great courage.

Multiple-choice Prediction: How was Malinche portrayed in the 16th-century illustrations? A. As a weak victim.
B. As an evil person.
C. As a powerful noblewoman.
D. As a common peasant.
Answer: C. As a powerful noblewoman.

Paragraph 5

English: Nevertheless, the seeds of a more derogatory view of Malinche can be found in the early 16th century, most obviously in Cortés's failure to detail her role in his letters to the king. This apparent contradiction - Malinche both ignored and respected - can best be understood in the context of the broader Spanish attitude toward interpreters, and the way in which that attitude generated a myth of communication.

Chinese: 尽管如此，对 Malinche 更为贬低的看法的种子可以在 16 世纪早期找到，最明显的是 Cortés 在给国王的信中没有详细说明她的角色。这种明显的矛盾——Malinche 既被忽视又被尊重——最好在更广泛的西班牙人对待翻译人员的态度背景下理解，以及这种态度如何产生了一种沟通的神话。

Explanation: Even though she was respected in some ways, there were early signs of a more negative view of Malinche. Cortés didn't talk much about her role in his letters. This mix of ignoring and respecting her can be understood by looking at how the Spanish generally felt about interpreters and how that led to a kind of myth about communication.

**Multiple-choice Prediction

**: What can be inferred about Cortés's letters to the king regarding Malinche? A. They praised her role greatly.
B. They failed to mention her much.
C. They were full of respect for her.
D. They called her a traitor.
Answer: B. They failed to mention her much.

段8：中英对照翻译：

Paragraph 1

English:
On some level, Spaniards believed that there was no real language barrier between them and Native Americans, a belief that underpinned the 1513 edict that required conquistadors to read a statement—in Spanish—to natives before attacking them.17 The document, known as the Requerimiento (Requirement) informed natives of a sort of chain of command from God to pope to king to conquistadors, with the latter merely putting into effect the divinely sanctioned donation of all American lands and peoples by the pope to the Spanish monarch. Native leaders were asked, therefore, to recognize papal and royal authority (that is, to surrender without resistance), and if they did so, the expedition leader was to tell them,

Chinese:
在某种程度上，西班牙人相信他们与美洲原住民之间没有真正的语言障碍，这一信念支撑了 1513 年的一项法令，该法令要求征服者在攻击原住民之前用西班牙语宣读一份声明。这份文件被称为《要求》（Requerimiento），向原住民告知了一种从上帝到教皇、再到国王、再到征服者的指挥链，后者只是执行教皇将所有美洲土地和人民赐予西班牙君主的神圣批准。因此，要求原住民领袖承认教皇和王室的权威（即无抵抗地投降），如果他们这样做了，远征队领袖应告诉他们，

Explanation:
The Spanish believed they could communicate with Native Americans without much language barrier. This belief led to a 1513 law requiring conquistadors to read a statement in Spanish to natives before attacking. The statement, called the Requerimiento, explained a chain of command from God to the pope, king, and conquistadors. It asked native leaders to recognize this authority and surrender without resistance.

Multiple-choice Prediction:
What was the purpose of the Requerimiento?
A. To inform natives about the Spanish culture.
B. To ask native leaders to surrender and recognize Spanish authority.
C. To teach natives the Spanish language.
D. To negotiate peace treaties with native tribes.
Answer: B. To ask native leaders to surrender and recognize Spanish authority.

Paragraph 2

English:
His Majesty and I, in his name, will receive you . . . and will leave your women and children free, without servitude so that with them and with yourselves you can freely do what you wish . . . and we will not compel you to turn Christians. But if you do not do it . . . with the help of God I will forcefully enter against you, and I will make war everywhere and however I can, and I will subject you to the yoke and obedience of the Church and His Majesty, and I will take your wives and children, and I will make them slaves . . . and I will take your goods, and I will do to you all the evil and damages that a lord may do to vassals who do not obey or receive him. And I solemnly declare that the deaths and damages received from such will be your fault and not that of His Majesty, nor mine, nor of the gentlemen who came with me.18

Chinese:
“他的陛下和我，以他的名义，将会接纳你们……会让你们的妇女和儿童自由，不受奴役，这样你们和她们可以自由地做你们想做的事……我们也不会强迫你们成为基督徒。但如果你们不这样做……在上帝的帮助下，我将强力地向你们进攻，我将在任何地方、以任何方式发动战争，我会让你们屈服于教会和陛下的统治，我会带走你们的妻子和孩子，让他们成为奴隶……我会拿走你们的财物，我会对你们做所有一位领主可以对不服从或不接纳他的臣民做的恶事和损害。我郑重声明，由此产生的死亡和损害将是你们的过错，而不是陛下的过错，也不是我的过错，也不是随我而来的绅士们的过错。”

Explanation:
The Requerimiento promised freedom and non-interference if natives surrendered, but threatened severe punishment, including slavery and taking of goods, if they resisted. It claimed that any harm caused would be the natives' fault.

Multiple-choice Prediction:
What did the Requerimiento threaten if natives did not surrender?
A. Forced conversion to Christianity.
B. Slavery and taking of goods.
C. Cultural assimilation.
D. Forced labor in Spanish colonies.
Answer: B. Slavery and taking of goods.

Paragraph 3

English:
The text makes no mention of interpreters, nor is there any evidence of the Requirement being translated into native languages. The document is patently contradictory; the comment by Las Casas, that one did not know “whether to laugh or cry at the absurdity of” the Requirement, is oft quoted.19 The Requirement symbolizes the Spanish conviction in their ability to communicate with natives—at least to the extent that they deemed necessary. On the other hand, Spaniards were also aware that on occasion there were language barriers that needed to be surmounted. As often as they were ignored, interpreters were valued and recognized as efficacious and exigent.

Chinese:
文本中没有提到翻译人员，也没有证据表明《要求》被翻译成当地语言。这份文件显然是自相矛盾的；Las Casas 的评论经常被引用，他说人们不知道“是该对《要求》的荒谬性笑还是哭”。《要求》象征着西班牙人对他们能够与原住民沟通的信念——至少在他们认为必要的程度上。另一方面，西班牙人也意识到有时存在需要克服的语言障碍。尽管他们经常被忽视，但翻译人员被重视并被认为是有成效且必要的。

Explanation:
The Requerimiento didn't mention interpreters and wasn't translated into native languages, showing a contradiction. It symbolized the Spanish belief in their ability to communicate with natives. However, they also knew there were language barriers, and interpreters were valued despite often being ignored.

Multiple-choice Prediction:
Why is the Requerimiento considered contradictory?
A. It promised freedom but threatened slavery.
B. It asked for surrender but offered no real protection.
C. It was written in Spanish but not translated into native languages.
D. It was meant to inform but was not understood by natives.
Answer: C. It was written in Spanish but not translated into native languages.

Paragraph 4

English:
According to the physician with Columbus’s first expedition, the Admiral brought seven Tainos back to Spain from his voyage and used the two who survived as interpreters on his second voyage.20 If such interpreters were able to rapidly acquire the necessary skills, survive exposure to Old World diseases, and outlive the wars of Conquest, they were often able to attain the kind of status in colonial society otherwise denied to all but the most privileged native nobles. Ironically, it was Spanish ethnocentrism that partly prompted admiration for native interpreters. Europeans tended to be surprised when Native Americans showed themselves able to learn European languages, and thus for a native to become fully bilingual was a notable achievement.21 Just as Bernal Díaz complimented Malinche by saying that she behaved like a man, so were native interpreters granted status by the invaders because they behaved more like Spaniards.

Chinese:
据哥伦布首次远征队的医生所说，海军上将从他的航行中带回了七名泰诺人到西班牙，并在第二次航行中使用了幸存的两名作为翻译。如果这些翻译能够迅速掌握必要的技能，幸存于旧大陆疾病的暴露，并在征服战争中活下来，他们通常能够在殖民社会中获得一种地位，这种地位在殖民社会中通常只有最特权的本地贵族才能获得。具有讽刺意味的是，部分是西班牙人的种族中心主义促使他们对本地翻译产生了钦佩。当美洲原住民表现出能够学习欧洲语言时，欧洲人往往会感到惊讶，因此对于一个本地人来说，完全掌握双语是一项显著的成就。就像 Bernal Díaz 夸赞 Malinche 说她表现得像个男人一样，本地翻译也因表现得更像西班牙人而被入侵者授予了地位。

Explanation:
Interpreters who could quickly learn skills, survive diseases, and outlive wars were highly valued in colonial society. Spanish ethnocentrism led to admiration for native interpreters who could learn European languages and behave like Spaniards.

Multiple-choice Prediction:
Why were native interpreters admired by the Spanish?
A. They could quickly learn European languages and behave like Spaniards.
B. They were able to survive the harsh conditions of the New World.
C. They helped the Spanish in battles against native tribes.
D. They were willing to convert to Christianity.
Answer: A. They could quickly learn European languages and behave like Spaniards.

Paragraph 5

English:
The first “official” interpreter of the conquest was a woman, La Malinche, who was originally a Nahua woman from the Gulf Coast. As the narrative goes, she was given to the Spanish as a slave, learned Spanish, and helped Cortés communicate with the Aztec emperor Montezuma. Over time, she became one of the most influential figures in the conquest, as she played a crucial role in the negotiations and alliances with various indigenous groups. Some view her as a traitor, while others consider her a symbol of resistance, as she ultimately navigated the complex relationships between the Spanish and indigenous peoples.

Chinese:
第一次征服中的“官方”翻译员是一位女性，La Malinche，她原本是来自海湾沿岸的纳瓦人。故事说，她被作为奴隶赠送给西班牙人，学会了西班牙语，并帮助科尔特斯与阿兹特克皇帝蒙特苏马进行沟通。随着时间的推移，她成为征服过程中最有影响力的人物之一，因为她在与各种土著部落的谈判和结盟中发挥了关键作用。一些人将她视为叛徒，而另一些人则认为她是抵抗的象征，因为她最终在西班牙人和土著人之间复杂的关系中找到了自己的位置。

Explanation:
La Malinche, a Nahua woman, became the first "official" interpreter in the conquest. She played a key role in helping the Spanish communicate and form alliances, making her a controversial figure—either a traitor or a symbol of resistance.

Multiple-choice Prediction:
What was La Malinche's role in the conquest?
A. She led battles against the Spanish.
B. She helped the Spanish communicate and form alliances with indigenous groups.
C. She taught the Spanish indigenous languages.
D. She resisted the Spanish invasion.
Answer: B. She helped the Spanish communicate and form alliances with indigenous groups.

Paragraph 6

English:
Over time, La Malinche’s role has become deeply intertwined with questions of betrayal and loyalty. While some see her as a traitor who helped the Spanish conquer her own people, others argue that she was simply navigating a difficult situation. The circumstances of her life were far from simple; born into a noble Nahua family, she was later enslaved by the Aztecs and eventually given to the Spanish. Her actions, therefore, can be seen as an act of survival and political pragmatism. As such, La Malinche remains one of the most controversial figures in the history of the conquest of the Americas.

Chinese:
随着时间的推移，La Malinche 的角色与背叛和忠诚的问题紧密相连。虽然一些人认为她是一个叛徒，帮助西班牙征服了自己的同胞，但也有人认为她只是应对一个复杂局势的产物。她的生活经历远非简单；她出生在一个纳瓦贵族家庭，后来被阿兹特克人奴役，最终被赠送给西班牙人。因此，她的行为可以被视为一种生存和政治上的务实行为。因此，La Malinche 仍然是美洲征服历史中最具争议的人物之一。

Explanation:
La Malinche's legacy is mixed; some view her as a traitor, while others see her actions as a pragmatic response to a complex situation. Her background and survival under difficult conditions contribute to her controversial status.

Multiple-choice Prediction:
Why is La Malinche considered a controversial figure?
A. She led indigenous resistance against the Spanish.
B. She was a Spanish spy who betrayed her people.
C. She acted as a pragmatic survivor and political intermediary.
D. She helped other indigenous tribes defeat the Spanish.
Answer: C. She acted as a pragmatic survivor and political intermediary.

Paragraph 7

English:
The legacy of the conquest of the Americas is still felt today in the ongoing tensions between indigenous and non-indigenous populations. The way in which the Spanish communicated their authority through documents like the Requerimiento and through intermediaries like La Malinche played a critical role in establishing European dominance in the Americas. However, the story of the conquest is not just one of oppression and colonization. Many indigenous groups actively participated in the events of the conquest, sometimes as allies of the Spanish, other times as adversaries. The conquest was a complex, multifaceted event that has shaped the social, cultural, and political landscape of the Americas to this day.

Chinese:
美洲征服的遗产今天依然存在，尤其是在土著与非土著人群体之间的紧张关系中。西班牙通过《要求》文件和像 La Malinche 这样的中介者传达其权威的方式，在美洲建立了欧洲的统治。然而，征服的故事不仅仅是压迫和殖民。许多土著部落积极参与了征服的过程，有时作为西班牙的盟友，有时则作为对手。征服是一个复杂、多面的事件，至今仍塑造着美洲的社会、文化和政治格局。

Explanation:
The legacy of the conquest still influences relations between indigenous and non-indigenous populations. The Requerimiento and interpreters like La Malinche helped establish European control, but the conquest was a complex event with both collaboration and conflict between groups.

Multiple-choice Prediction:
What role did indigenous groups play in the conquest?
A. They were all oppressed by the Spanish.
B. They resisted the Spanish as a unified front.
C. Some allied with the Spanish, while others fought them.
D. They helped spread European culture across the Americas.
Answer: C. Some allied with the Spanish, while others fought them.

Summary of Multiple-choice Predictions:

What was the purpose of the Requerimiento?
Answer: B. To ask native leaders to surrender and recognize Spanish authority.
What did the Requerimiento threaten if natives did not surrender?
Answer: B. Slavery and taking of goods.
Why is the Requerimiento considered contradictory?
Answer: C. It was written in Spanish but not translated into native languages.
Why were native interpreters admired by the Spanish?
Answer: A. They could quickly learn European languages and behave like Spaniards.
What was La Malinche's role in the conquest?
Answer: B. She helped the Spanish communicate and form alliances with indigenous groups.
Why is La Malinche considered a controversial figure?
Answer: C. She acted as a pragmatic survivor and political intermediary.
What role did indigenous groups play in the conquest?
Answer: C. Some allied with the Spanish, while others fought them.

Sure! Here's a restatement of the entire text:

段9：中英对照翻译：

Paragraph 1

English: During one of his many encounters with the natives of the Caribbean islands, Columbus found himself in a small boat with a number of his men preparing to land on the shore of a river, where a party of local men awaited them. According to Columbus’s own account, as later summarized by Las Casas:

Chinese: 在哥伦布与加勒比海岛屿原住民的多次接触中的一次，他发现自己和一些船员在一条小船上，准备在一条河的岸边登陆，那里有一群当地男子等待着他们。根据哥伦布自己的描述，后来由 Las Casas 总结：

Explanation: This paragraph sets the scene for an encounter between Columbus and native men on a Caribbean island. Columbus and his men were in a small boat, about to land on the shore of a river where local men were waiting.

Multiple-choice Prediction: Where did Columbus and his men prepare to land? A. On the shore of a lake. B. On the shore of a river. C. On a sandy beach. D. On a rocky cliff. Answer: B. On the shore of a river.

Paragraph 2

English: One of the Indians advanced into the river near the prow of the boat, and delivered a long speech which the Admiral failed to understand. But he observed that the other Indians from time to time raised their hands toward the sky and uttered a great shout. The Admiral surmised that they were assuring him that his coming was a welcome event, but he saw the face of the Indian whom he had taken with him, and who understands the language, change color, turn yellow as wax, and tremble mightily while saying by signs that the Admiral should leave the river because they sought to kill him.

Chinese: 一个印第安人走到船头附近的河里，发表了一篇长篇演讲，但哥伦布听不懂。但他注意到其他印第安人不时地把手举向天空，发出大声呼喊。哥伦布猜测他们是在向他保证他的到来是受欢迎的，但他看到随他同行的、懂语言的印第安人的脸色变了，变得像蜡一样黄，并且剧烈颤抖，同时用手势表示哥伦布应该离开河里，因为他们想要杀他。

Explanation: One of the natives gave a speech that Columbus didn't understand. He noticed other natives raising their hands and shouting. Columbus thought they were welcoming him, but the native who understood the language showed fear and signaled that the natives wanted to kill Columbus.

Multiple-choice Prediction: What did the native who understood the language signal to Columbus? A. That the natives were friendly. B. That the natives wanted to trade. C. That the natives wanted to kill him. D. That the natives were asking for help. Answer: C. That the natives wanted to kill him.

Paragraph 3

English: Moments like these illustrate the “crude pantomime” to which Europeans and natives in the Americas were often reduced by language barriers. Miscommunication was hardly unusual, but examples like the one above have also fostered a myth of miscommunication, rooted not directly in Columbus’s experiences and diaries, but indirectly through the commentary of Las Casas.

Chinese: 这样的时刻说明了欧洲人和美洲原住民因语言障碍而经常被简化为的“粗糙哑剧”。误解并不罕见，但像上面这样的例子也助长了一种误解的神话，这种神话并非直接根植于哥伦布的经历和日记，而是间接通过 Las Casas 的评论。

Explanation: This paragraph explains that language barriers often led to crude pantomime between Europeans and natives. Miscommunication was common, and examples like the one above contributed to a myth of miscommunication, which was not directly based on Columbus's experiences but on Las Casas's commentary.

Multiple-choice Prediction: What did the language barriers often lead to between Europeans and natives? A. Detailed conversations. B. Crude pantomime. C. Written communication. D. Mutual understanding. Answer: B. Crude pantomime.粗糙的哑剧

Paragraph 4

English: The Dominican is generally scathing about Columbus’s treatment of Caribbean natives, and his “ignorance” and failure to understand them. Modern commentators have picked up and expanded this theme considerably.

Chinese: 多米尼加人通常严厉批评哥伦布对加勒比海原住民的对待，以及他的“无知”和未能理解他们。现代评论员大大扩展了这一主题。

Explanation: Las Casas is very critical of Columbus's treatment of the Caribbean natives and his ignorance and failure to understand them. Modern commentators have expanded on this theme.

Multiple-choice Prediction: What is Las Casas's general opinion of Columbus's treatment of Caribbean natives? A. Praise. B. Criticism. C. Indifference. D. Support. Answer: B. Criticism.

Paragraph 5

English: In Todorov’s view, “Columbus does not succeed in his human communications because he is not interested in them.” Margarita Zamora, a scholar of Spanish literature, uses the term “aphasia”—literally loss of understanding due to brain damage—to describe this failure. Zamora does not mean to imply that Columbus suffered from a “personal shortcoming” but that he was handicapped by the “essential incapacity of the discourses at his disposal” to help him comprehend what he saw and heard. Another prominent literary scholar, Stephen Greenblatt, gives the Genoese more communicative credit than do Todorov and Zamora, but he still observes that Columbus tended to see what he wanted to see, to read the familiar into the new; Columbus’s narratives thus become “a fantasmatic representation of authoritative certainty in the face of spectacular ignorance."

Chinese: 在 Todorov 看来，“哥伦布在人际交往中没有成功，因为他对这些交往不感兴趣。”西班牙文学学者 Margarita Zamora 使用“失语症”一词——字面上因脑损伤导致的理解丧失——来描述这种失败。Zamora 并不是暗示哥伦布有“个人缺点”，而是说他受到“他所掌握的 discourse（话语/论述）的本质无能”的限制，无法帮助他理解他所看到和听到的。另一位著名的文学学者 Stephen Greenblatt 比 Todorov 和 Zamora 更多地肯定了哥伦布的沟通能力，但他仍然指出哥伦布倾向于看到他想看到的东西，将熟悉的事物读入新的事物中；因此哥伦布的叙述变成了“在壮观的无知面前权威确定性的幻想表现”。

Explanation: Todorov believes Columbus failed in communication because he wasn't interested. Zamora uses "aphasia" to describe his failure, not as a personal shortcoming but due to the inability of the discourses available to him. Greenblatt gives Columbus more credit but still notes that he saw what he wanted to see, making his narratives a fantastical representation of authority in the face of ignorance.

Multiple-choice Prediction: What does Zamora mean by "aphasia" in the context of Columbus's communication? A. A personal shortcoming. B. A brain damage. C. The inability of the discourses available to him. D. A lack of interest. Answer: C. The inability of the discourses available to him.

Paragraph 6

English: In Todorov’s discussion of the Conquest of Mexico, Cortés becomes the great communicator, in contrast to Moctezuma and the Mexica, whose inability to read human signs condemns them to defeat. The historian Inga Clendinnen has argued that miscommunication went in all directions during Mexico’s Conquest, explaining not so much native defeat but rather the deterioration of Spanish-Mexica relations into a brutal and destructive war.

Chinese: 在 Todorov 关于墨西哥征服的讨论中，Cortés 成为了伟大的沟通者，与 Moctezuma 和墨西加人形成对比，后者无法读懂人类的信号，注定失败。历史学家 Inga Clendinnen 认为，在墨西哥征服期间，误解是全方位的，这更多地解释了西班牙 - 墨西加关系的恶化，演变成了一场残酷和破坏性的战争。

Explanation: In Todorov's view, Cortés was a great communicator, while Moctezuma and the Mexica were unable to read human signs, leading to their defeat. Clendinnen argues that miscommunication went in all directions during the Conquest, explaining the deterioration of Spanish-Mexica relations into a brutal war.

Multiple-choice Prediction: What does Clendinnen argue about miscommunication during the Conquest of Mexico? A. It led to the defeat of the natives. B. It explained the deterioration of Spanish-Mexica relations into a brutal war. C. It was a result of Cortés's poor communication skills. D. It was caused by the natives' inability to read human signs. Answer: B. It explained the deterioration of Spanish-Mexica relations into a brutal war.

Paragraph 7

English: J. H. Elliott, in a classic study written over

forty years ago, emphasized the point that communication was not the only factor in the failure of the indigenous cultures to resist European invasion. According to Elliott, even the most successful indigenous peoples, such as the Aztecs and Incas, lacked the means and the desire to confront the Spanish conquistadors, and their greatest vulnerability was the traditional hierarchical nature of their political systems.

Chinese: J. H. Elliott 在四十多年前写的经典研究中强调了一个观点：沟通并不是土著文化未能抵抗欧洲入侵的唯一因素。根据 Elliott 的说法，即使是最成功的土著民族，如阿兹特克人和印加人，也缺乏与西班牙征服者对抗的手段和愿望，他们最大的脆弱性在于他们政治体系的传统等级性。

Explanation: Elliott points out that communication was not the only reason indigenous cultures failed to resist European invasion. Even successful cultures like the Aztecs and Incas lacked the means and desire to confront the Spanish, and their hierarchical political systems made them vulnerable.

Multiple-choice Prediction: According to Elliott, what was the greatest vulnerability of indigenous peoples? A. Communication barriers. B. The desire to resist. C. Hierarchical political systems. D. Military strength. Answer: C. Hierarchical political systems.

段10：中英对照翻译：

Paragraph 1

English:
Betanzos’s observation that Spaniards were initially more interested in subjugating natives than “finding things out” about them is insightful. The problem lies in the use by modern scholars of this kind of observation to explain the Conquest. Todorov’s argument that Mexica’s defeat stemmed from a failure to master “interhuman communication” is presented in starker terms by the French writer, Le Clézio, who depicts Cortés as achieving conquest less with his sword than with his words, with “his most formidable, most efficacious weapon: speech,” and with “his most fearsome instrument of domination: speech.”30

Chinese:
Betanzos 观察到，西班牙人最初更感兴趣于征服原住民，而不是“了解”他们，这一观察很有洞察力。问题在于，现代学者利用这种观察来解释征服。Todorov 认为墨西加人的失败源于未能掌握“人际交流”，法国作家 Le Clézio 以更尖锐的方式提出了这一观点，他描绘了 Cortés 更多地是用言语而不是剑来实现征服，用“他最可怕、最有效的武器：言语”，以及用“他最可怕的统治工具：言语”。

Explanation:
This paragraph discusses how Spanish conquistadors were more focused on subjugating natives than understanding them. It highlights Todorov's argument that the Mexica's defeat was due to a failure in communication, and Le Clézio's portrayal of Cortés using speech as a powerful tool for conquest.

Multiple - choice Prediction:
According to Le Clézio, what was Cortés's most effective weapon in conquest?
A. His sword.
B. His speech.
C. His military strategy.
D. His alliances with native tribes.
Answer: B. His speech.

Paragraph 2

English:
This interpretation has several dimensions to it. The vaguest one refers to signs and speech as part of a larger process of communication. A more specific dimension refers to interpreters, drawing upon evidence regarding the role played by bilingual natives and “the importance of language as a tool of conquest” (in the words of one editor of Bernal Díaz’s account).31 The most specific dimension of the argument refers to writing.

Chinese:
这种解释有几个层面。最模糊的层面是指符号和言语作为更大交流过程的一部分。一个更具体的层面是指翻译人员，依据关于双语原住民的作用以及“语言作为征服工具的重要性”的证据（用 Bernal Díaz 著作的一位编辑的话来说）。论点中最具体的层面是指书写。

Explanation:
This paragraph explains that the interpretation of Cortés's use of speech has multiple dimensions. The broadest dimension involves signs and speech in communication. A more specific dimension involves interpreters and the role of bilingual natives. The most specific dimension involves writing.

Multiple - choice Prediction:
What is the most specific dimension of the argument about Cortés's use of speech?
A. The role of interpreters.
B. The importance of language.
C. The use of writing.
D. The impact of military strategy.
Answer: C. The use of writing.

Paragraph 3

English:
“There is a ‘technology’ of symbolism,” asserts Todorov, “which is as capable of evolution as the technology of tools, and, in this perspective, the Spaniards are more ‘advanced’ than the Aztecs (or to generalize: societies possessing writing are more advanced than societies without writing), even if we are here concerned only with a difference of degree.” Despite Todorov’s use of “scare quotes,” the argument is clear—that the Spaniards conquered because they were more advanced—and it is one that the conquistadors, and Prescott and his nineteenth-century contemporaries, would have liked and understood.

Chinese:
Todorov 断言：“有一种‘符号技术’，它和工具技术一样具有进化能力，从这个角度来看，西班牙人比阿兹特克人更‘先进’（或者概括来说：拥有书写的社团比没有书写的社团更先进），即使我们这里只关心程度上的差异。”尽管 Todorov 使用了“引号”，但论点很明确——西班牙人征服是因为他们更先进——这是征服者以及 Prescott 和他的 19 世纪同时代人都会喜欢并理解的观点。

Explanation:
Todorov argues that the Spaniards were more advanced due to their "technology of symbolism," which includes writing. This argument suggests that the Spaniards' conquest was due to their advanced communication tools, a view that would have been understood and appreciated by the conquistadors and their contemporaries.

Multiple - choice Prediction:
According to Todorov, what gave the Spaniards an advantage over the Aztecs?
A. Their military strength.
B. Their advanced tools.
C. Their writing system.
D. Their alliances with other tribes.
Answer: C. Their writing system.

Paragraph 4

English:
Greenblatt refers to this passage too, and his pithy response is worth quoting: “There seems to me no convincing evidence that writing functioned in the early encounter of European and New World peoples as a superior tool for the accurate perception or effective manipulation of the other.

Chinese:
Greenblatt 也提到了这段话，他简洁的回应值得引用：“在我看来，没有令人信服的证据表明，在欧洲人和新大陆人民的早期接触中，书写作为一种更优越的工具，用于准确感知或有效操纵对方。”

Explanation:
Greenblatt responds to Todorov's argument by stating that there is no convincing evidence that writing was a superior tool in the early interactions between Europeans and New World peoples.

Multiple - choice Prediction:
What does Greenblatt argue about the role of writing in early European-New World encounters?
A. It was a crucial tool for conquest.
B. It was a superior tool for communication.
C. There is no convincing evidence it was a superior tool.
D. It was irrelevant to the interactions.
Answer: C. There is no convincing evidence it was a superior tool.

Paragraph 5

English:
Jared Diamond’s Guns, Germs, and Steel also argues for writing as a hallmark of European superiority, specifically in his depiction of the initial meeting of Pizarro and Atahuallpa in 1532, in the central plaza of the northern Peruvian Inca city of Cajamarca. Pizarro had less than 200 men, all heavily armed. Atahuallpa had an entourage of 5,000, but most were unarmed and the rest lightly armed (his army waited on the plains outside the city).

Chinese:
Jared Diamond 的《枪炮、病菌与钢铁》也认为书写是欧洲优越性的标志，特别是在他描述 1532 年 Pizarro 和 Atahuallpa 在秘鲁北部印加城市 Cajamarca 的中心广场的初次会面时。Pizarro 有不到 200 人，全都武装到牙齿。Atahuallpa 有一群 5000 人的随从，但大多数没有武装，其余的武装也很轻（他的军队在城外的平原上等待）。

Explanation:
This paragraph discusses Jared Diamond's argument that writing was a sign of European superiority, using the example of Pizarro's meeting with Atahuallpa in 1532. Pizarro had a small but heavily armed force, while Atahuallpa had a large but mostly unarmed entourage.

Multiple - choice Prediction:
What does Diamond argue about the role of writing in the meeting between Pizarro and Atahuallpa?
A. It was a symbol of European superiority.
B. It was irrelevant to the outcome.
C. It was a tool for effective communication.
D. It was a sign of weakness.
Answer: A. It was a symbol of European superiority.

Paragraph 6

English:
The first Spaniard to approach the emperor was not Pizarro, but a Dominican friar, holding a cross and a Bible or missal. Within minutes the book was on the ground, and shortly after that Atahuallpa was pulled from his litter and taken captive, while the Spaniards cut down thousands of his servants, killing about a third of his entourage.

Chinese:
第一个走向皇帝的西班牙人不是 Pizarro，而是一位多米尼加修士，手持十字架和圣经或弥撒书。几分钟内，书就掉到了地上，不久之后 Atahuallpa 被从轿子里拉出来并被俘虏，而西班牙人砍倒了他的数千名仆人，杀死了他随从的约三分之一。

Explanation:
This paragraph describes the initial encounter between the Spanish and Atahuallpa. A Dominican friar approached Atahuallpa with a cross and a book, which was soon dropped. Atahuallpa was then captured, and many of his servants

were killed.

Multiple - choice Prediction:
Who was the first Spaniard to approach Atahuallpa?
A. Pizarro.
B. A Dominican friar.
C. A soldier.
D. A translator.
Answer: B. A Dominican friar.

Paragraph 7

English: Diamond’s assertion is that literacy explains the nature and outcome of the meeting between the Spanish captain and the Inca emperor. “Spain possessed it, while the Inca Empire did not.” Spanish writing transmitted information that brought Spaniards to Peru in the first place. Writing then gave the invaders a cognitive advantage over Atahuallpa—whose access to “scant information” thus led him to make “naïve” and “fatal miscalculations."

Chinese: Diamond 的断言是，识字能力解释了西班牙船长和印加皇帝会面的性质和结果。“西班牙拥有它，而印加帝国没有。”西班牙的书写传递了信息，使西班牙人首先来到秘鲁。书写随后给了入侵者比 Atahuallpa 更大的认知优势——他只能接触到“有限的信息”，因此做出了“天真”和“致命的误判”。

Explanation: Diamond argues that literacy was a key factor in the outcome of the meeting between Pizarro and Atahuallpa. Spain's possession of writing gave them an advantage, while the Inca Empire's lack of writing led to Atahuallpa's misjudgments.

Multiple-choice Prediction: According to Diamond, what gave the Spaniards a cognitive advantage over Atahuallpa?
A. Their military strength.
B. Their literacy and writing system.
C. Their alliances with native tribes.
D. Their advanced weaponry.
Answer: B. Their literacy and writing system.

Paragraph 8

English: There are a number of problems with this argument. First, there is no evidence that Pizarro and his colleagues were any better informed about the Inca empire and Andean culture than Atahuallpa was about the Spaniards; both leaders had sent out spies and questioned northern Andean natives before the meeting.

Chinese: 这个论点有几个问题。首先，没有证据表明 Pizarro 和他的同事对印加帝国和安第斯文化比 Atahuallpa 对西班牙人更了解；两位领导人在会面前都派出了间谍并审问了北安第斯原住民。

Explanation: This paragraph points out flaws in Diamond's argument. There is no evidence that Pizarro and his men had better information about the Inca Empire than Atahuallpa had about the Spanish. Both leaders had gathered intelligence before their meeting.

Multiple-choice Prediction: What is one problem with Diamond's argument about the role of literacy in the Conquest?
A. There is no evidence that the Spaniards had better information.
B. The Inca Empire had a superior military.
C. The Spanish were not interested in conquest.
D. The Inca had a better understanding of the Spanish.
Answer: A. There is no evidence that the Spaniards had better information.

Paragraph 9

English: Second, it is highly debatable whether writing would have been a better system of communicating information than the oral techniques and quipu devices (complex sets of colored, knotted strings attached to rods) developed over centuries by Andeans.

Chinese: 其次，高度有争议的是，书写是否比安第斯人几个世纪以来发展的口头技巧和 quipu 设备（附着在杆上的复杂彩色打结绳索）更好的信息传递系统。

Explanation: This paragraph questions whether writing was a better system for communication than the oral techniques and quipu devices used by the Andeans. It suggests that the effectiveness of these methods is debatable.

Multiple-choice Prediction: What is a problem with the argument that writing was a superior tool for communication?
A. The Inca had no written language.
B. The Spanish had no knowledge of quipu devices.
C. The effectiveness of quipu devices is debatable.
D. The Inca had a superior military.
Answer: C. The effectiveness of quipu devices is debatable.

Paragraph 10

English: Even if we concede writing to be marginally more efficient, under the specific circumstances of Pizarro’s invasion, its possible advantage hardly explains the entire outcome of the Conquest of Peru. Third, Diamond’s assertion that “literacy made the Spaniards heirs to a huge body of knowledge about human behavior and history” that was denied to Andeans is a highly problematic generalization that is better explained by the geographic factors articulated by Diamond elsewhere in his book.

Chinese: 即使我们承认书写稍微更有效，在 Pizarro 入侵的具体情况下，它可能的优势几乎无法解释整个秘鲁征服的结果。第三，Diamond 断言“识字使西班牙人成为关于人类行为和历史的庞大知识体系的继承者，而这些知识被安第斯人所剥夺”是一个高度有问题的概括，这在 Diamond 的书中其他地方通过地理因素得到了更好的解释。

Explanation: This paragraph argues that even if writing was slightly more efficient, it doesn't fully explain the outcome of the Conquest. It also criticizes Diamond's claim that literacy gave the Spanish an advantage, suggesting that geographic factors were more significant.

Multiple-choice Prediction: What is a problem with Diamond's argument about the role of literacy in the Conquest?
A. It ignores the efficiency of writing.
B. It overemphasizes the importance of literacy.
C. It focuses too much on military strategy.
D. It underestimates the Inca's knowledge.
Answer: B. It overemphasizes the importance of literacy.

Paragraph 11

English: Fourth, as it is not clear how much or little Atahuallpa knew of Pizarro’s expedition, we might accept Diamond’s premise, but it is still not at all clear what difference it could have made. The Spaniards, allegedly better informed, followed the predictable patterns of the Conquest.

Chinese: 第四，由于不清楚 Atahuallpa 对 Pizarro 远征了解多少或不了解多少，我们可能会接受 Diamond 的前提，但仍然完全不清楚这会有什么不同。据说更了解情况的西班牙人遵循了征服的可预测模式。

Explanation: This paragraph questions the impact of Atahuallpa's knowledge of Pizarro's expedition. Even if he knew more, it's unclear how it would have changed the outcome. The Spanish followed typical conquest patterns regardless.

Multiple-choice Prediction: What is a problem with the idea that Atahuallpa's lack of information led to his defeat?
A. It ignores the Spanish military strategy.
B. It overemphasizes the role of information.
C. It underestimates the Inca's military strength.
D. It focuses too much on Atahuallpa's decisions.
Answer: B. It overemphasizes the role of information.

Paragraph 12

English: During the initial encounter this included using legalistic measures to validate their actions (the reading of the Requirement), the use of display violence (the massacre of unarmed retainers), and the capture of the native ruler. In the encounter’s immediate aftermath, this included a dependence upon native interpreters, the use of native allies, and the emphasis on acquiring precious metals.

Chinese: 在最初的接触中，这包括使用法律手段来证明他们的行为合法（宣读《要求》），使用展示暴力（屠杀无武装的仆从），以及俘虏本地统治者。在接触的直接后果中，这包括依赖本地翻译人员，使用本地盟友，以及强调获取贵金属。

Explanation: This paragraph describes the typical patterns of the Spanish conquest. During the initial encounter, they used legal measures, violence, and captured the native ruler. After the encounter, they relied on native interpreters, allies, and focused on acquiring precious metals.

Multiple-choice Prediction: What was one of the typical patterns of the Spanish conquest after the initial encounter?
A. Using legal measures to validate their actions.
B. Relying on native interpreters.
C. Focusing on converting natives to Christianity.
D. Establishing peaceful relations with native tribes.
Answer: B. Relying on native interpreters.

Paragraph 13

English: It seems unreasonable to deem Atahuallpa naïve for not attempting to have the Spaniards all killed before they could get near to him, and unrealistic to expect that any amount of information would have inspired such a brutal and draconian decision. It is doubtful that knowledge of the Mexica empire and its collapse would have deterred the Inca ruler from engaging—rather than simply slaughtering—the invaders.

Chinese: 认为 Atahuallpa 天真地没有试图在西班牙人靠近他之前把他们全部杀死似乎不合理，期望任何数量的信息都会激发如此残酷和严厉的决定也不现实。可以怀疑，对墨西加帝国及其崩溃的了解不会阻止印加统治者与入侵者接触——而不是简单地屠杀他们。

Explanation: This paragraph argues that it's unreasonable to consider Atahuallpa naive for not killing the Spanish before they approached him. It suggests that even with more information, he likely wouldn't have made such a brutal decision.

**Multiple-choice

Prediction:** What is the argument against Diamond's view of Atahuallpa's decisions?
A. Atahuallpa had no military power.
B. Atahuallpa was too naive to make strategic decisions.
C. Knowledge would not have led Atahuallpa to kill the Spanish.
D. Atahuallpa lacked the resources to fight.
Answer: C. Knowledge would not have led Atahuallpa to kill the Spanish.

在上述段落中涉及到的主要人物名字如下：

Pizarro（皮萨罗）: 西班牙的征服者，领导了西班牙对印加帝国的征服。他是西班牙探险家弗朗西斯科·皮萨罗（Francisco Pizarro），以征服印加帝国而闻名。
Atahuallpa（阿塔瓦尔帕）: 印加帝国的最后一位皇帝，领导印加帝国与西班牙征服者皮萨罗的军队作战。在西班牙征服印加的过程中，他被皮萨罗俘虏并最终被处死。
Diamond（戴蒙德）: Jared Diamond，生物学家和地理学家，他在《枪炮、病菌与钢铁》一书中探讨了文明兴衰的原因，提出了地理、环境等因素对人类历史的影响。他在文中讨论了西班牙征服印加的原因，强调了书写和信息传递在其中的作用。
Mexica（墨西加）: 墨西哥的土著民族之一，属于阿兹特克文明的核心民族。在西班牙征服期间，墨西加帝国也面临了类似印加帝国的命运。