对于“NP难问题”的理解

1、首先涉及到的基本概念有:

  • (1)确定性算法(Determinism): 设A是问题Π的一个解决算法,在算法的整个执行过程中,每一步都能得到一个确定的解,这样的算法就是确定性算法。

  • (2)非确定性算法(Nondeterminism):设A是求解问题Π的一个算法,它将问题分解成两部分,分别为猜测阶段和验证阶段,其中

    • 猜测阶段:在这个阶段,对问题的输入实例产生一个任意字符串y,在算法的每一次运行时,串y的值可能不同,因此,猜测以一种非确定的形式工作。
    • 验证阶段:在这个阶段,用一个确定性算法(有限时间内)验证:① 检查在猜测阶段产生的串y是否是合适的形式,如果不是,则算法停下来并得到no;② 如果串y是合适的形式,则验证它是否是问题的解,如果是,则算法停下来并得到yes,否则算法停下来并得到no。它是验证所猜测的解的正确性。

另外涉及到的概念有:

多项式时间(Polynomial):对于规模为n的输入,它们在最坏的情况下的运行时间为O(n^k),其中k为某个常数,则该算法为多项式时间的算法
在计算复杂度的理论中,算法的计算时间也就是时间复杂度m(n)不大于算法规模n的多项式倍数,也就是说m(n)是关于n的一个多项式函数。例如,时间复杂度为O(n^2)的就是多项式时间,而时间复杂度为O2^n)的则不是关于n的多项式函数,因此就不是多项式时间。

  
  
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2、P类问题,NP类问题,NP难问题,NPC问题

  • (1)P类问题:在多项式时间内可解的问题。
  • (2)NP类问题(Nondeterminism Polynomial):在多项式时间内“可验证”的问题。也就是说,不能判定这个问题到底有没有解,而是猜出一个解来在多项式时间内证明这个解是否正确。即该问题的猜测过程是不确定的,而对其某一个解的验证则能够在多项式时间内完成。P类问题属于NP问题,但不确定是否为NP问题的真子集。
  • (3)NPC类问题(Nondeterminism Polynomial complete):存在这样一个NP问题,所有的NP问题都可以约化成它。换句话说,只要解决了这个问题,那么所有的NP问题都解决了。其定义要满足2个条件:
    • 首先,它得是一个NP问题;
    • 然后,所有的NP问题都可以约化到它。
  • 要证明npc问题的思路就是:
    • 先证明它至少是一个NP问题,
    • 再证明其中一个已知的NPC问题能约化到它。
  • (4)NP难问题(NP-hard问题):NP-Hard问题是这样一种问题,它满足NPC问题定义的第二条但不一定要满足第一条(就是说,NP-Hard问题要比
    NPC问题的范围广,NP-Hard问题没有限定属于NP),即所有的NP问题都能约化到它,但是他不一定是一个NP问题。NP-Hard问题同样难以找到多项式的算法,但它不列入我们的研究范围,因为它不一定是NP问题。即使NPC问题发现了多项式级的算法,NP-Hard问题有可能仍然无法得到多项式级的算法。事实上,由于NP-Hard放宽了限定条件,它将有可能比所有的NPC问题的时间复杂度更高从而更难以解决。

以上四个问题他们之间的关系可以用下图来表示:
这里写图片描述

3、在2中涉及到的另外一个概念呢,就是:规约/约化

  • 简单的说,问题A可以约化为问题B,就可以理解为:问题B的解就一定是问题A的解。
  • 也可以理解为,“问题A可归约为问题B”,指问题B的答案可用于解决问题A。因此解决A不会难于解决B。
  • 由此也可以知道的是问题B的时间复杂度一定会大于等于问题A。
  • 《算法导论》上举了这么一个例子。比如说,现在有两个问题:求解一个一元一次方程和求解一个一元二次方程。那么我们说,前者可以规约为后者,意即知道如何解一个一元二次方程那么一定能解出一元一次方程。我们可以写出两个程序分别对应两个问题,那么我们能找到一个“规则”,按照这个规则把解一元一次方程程序的输入数据变一下,用在解一元二次方程的程序上,两个程序总能得到一样的结果。这个规则即是:两个方程的对应项系数不变,一元二次方程的二次项系数为0。
  • 从规约的定义中我们看到,一个问题规约为另一个问题,时间复杂度增加了,问题的应用范围也增大了。通过对某些问题的不断规约,我们能够不断寻找复杂度更高,但应用范围更广的算法来代替复杂度虽然低,但只能用于很小的一类问题的算法。存在这样一个NP问题,所有的NP问题都可以约化成它。换句话说,只要解决了这个问题,那么所有的NP问题都解决了。这种问题的存在难以置信,并且更加不可思议的是,这种问题不只一个,它有很多个,它是一类问题。这一类问题就是传说中的NPC问题,也就是NP-完全问题。

转自willa要努力奋斗的博客:http://blog.csdn.net/u014295667/article/details/47090639

这本书在国内已经绝版。目录如下 Introduction Dorit S. Hochbaum 0.1 What can approximation algorithms do for you: an illustrative example 0.2 Fundamentals and concepts 0.3 Objectives and organization of this book 0.4 Acknowledgments I Approximation Algorithms for Scheduling Leslie A. Hall 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Sequencing with Release Dates to Minimize Lateness 1.2.1 Jacksons rule 1.2.2 A simple 3/2-approximation algorithm 1.2.3 A polynomial approximation scheme 1.2.4 Precedence constraints and preprocessing 1.3 Identical parallel machines: beyond list scheduling 1.3.1 P|rj,prec|Lmax:: list scheduling revisited 1.3.2 The LPT rule for P‖Cmax 1.3.3 The LPT rule for P|rj|Cmax 1.3.4 Other results for identical parallel machines 1.4 Unrelated parallel machines 1.4.1 A 2-approximation algorithm based on linear programming 1.4.2 An approximation algorithm for minimizing cost and makespan 1.4.3 A related result from network scheduling 1.5 Shop scheduling 1.5.1 A greedy 2-approximation algorithm for open shops 1.5.2 An algorithm with an absolute error bound 1.5.3 A 2 E -approximation algorithm for fixed job and flow shops 1.5.4 The general job shop: unit-time operations 1.6 Lower bounds on approximation for makespan scheduling 1.6.1 Identical parallel machines and precedence constraints 1.6.2 Unrelated parallel machines 1.6.3 Shop scheduling 1.7 Min-sum Objectives 1.7.1 Sequencing with release dates to minimize sum of completion times 1.7.2 Sequencing with precedence constraints 1.7.3 Unrelated parallel machines 1.8 Final remarks 2 Approximation Algorithms for Bin Packing: A Survey E. G. Coffman, Jr., M. R. Garey, and D. S. Johnson 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Worst-case analysis 2.2.1 Next fit 2.2.2 First fit 2.2.3 Best fit, worst fit, and almost any fit algorithms 2.2.4 Bounded-space online algorithms 2.2.5 Arbitrary online algorithms 2.2.6 Semi-online algorithms 2.2.7 First fit decreasing and best fit decreasing 2.2.8 Other simple offline algorithms 2.2.9 Special-case optimality, approximation schemes, and asymptotically optimal algorithms 2.2.10 Other worst-case questions 2.3 Average-case analysis 2.3.1 Bounded-space online algorithms 2.3.2 Arbitrary online algorithms 2.3.3 Offiine algorithms 2.3.4 Other average-case questions 2.4 Conclusion Approximating Covering and Packing Problems: Set Cover, Vertex Cover, Independent Set, and Related Problems Dorit S. Hachbaum 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Definitions, formulations and applications 3.1.2 Lower bounds on approximations 3.1.3 Overview of chapter 3.2 The greedy algorithm for the set cover problem 3.3 The LP-algorithm for set cover 3.4 The feasible dual approach 3.5 Using other relaxations to derive dual feasible solutions 3.6 Approximating the multicoverproblem 3.7 The optimal dual approach for the vertex cover and independent set problems: preprocessing 3.7.1 The complexity of the LP-relaxation of vertex cover and independent set 3.7.2 Easily colorable graphs 3.7.3 A greedy algorithm for independent set in unweighted graphs 3.7.4 A local-ratio theorem and subgraph removal 3.7.5 Additional algorithms without preprocessing 3.7.6 Summary of approximations for vertex cover and independent set 3.8 Integer programming with two variables per inequality 3.8.1 The half integrality and the linear programming relaxation 3.8.2 Computing all approximate solution 3.8.3 The equivalence of IP2 to 2-SAT and 2-SAT to vertex cover 3.8.4 Properties of binary integer programs 3.8.5 Dual feasible solutions for IP2 3.9 The maximum coverage problem and the greedy 3.9.1 Tile greedy approach 3.9.2 Applications of the maxinmum coverage problem 4 The Primal-Dual Methud for Approximation Algorithms and Its Applicatiun to Network Design Problems Michel X. Goemans and David P. Williamson 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The classical primal-dual method 4.3 Thc primal-dual method Im approximation algorithms 4.4 A model of network design problems 4.4.1 0-I functions 4.5 Downwards monotone functions 4.5.1 The edge-covering problem 4.5.2 Lower capacitated partitioning problems 4.5.3 Location-design and location-routing problems 4.5.4 Proof of Theorems 4.5 and 4.6 4.6 0-1 proper functions 4.6.1 The generalized Sterner tree problem 4.6.2 The T-join problem 4.6.3 The minimum-weight perfect matching problem 4.6.4 Point-to-point connection problems 4.6.5 Exact partitioning problems 4.7 General proper functions 4.8 Extensions 4.8.1 Mininmm multicut in trees 4.8.2 The prize-collecting problems 4.8.3 Vertex connectivity problems 4.9 Conclusions 5 Cut Problems and Their Application to Divide-and-Conquer David B. Shmoys 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Minimum multicuts and maximum multicommodity flow 5.2.1 Multicuts, maximum multicommodity flow, and a weak duality theorem 5.2.2 Fractional multicuts, pipe systems, and a strong duality theorem 5.2.3 Solving the linear programs 5.2.4 Finding a good multicut 5.3 Sparsest cuts and maximum concurrent flow 5.3.1 The sparsest cut problem 5.3.2 Reducing the sparsest cut problem to the minimum multicut problem 5.3.3 Embeddings and the sparsest cut problem 5.3.4 Finding a good embedding 5.3.5 The maximum concurrent flow problem 5.4 Minimum feedback arc sets and related problems 5.4.1 An LP-based approximation algorithm 5.4.2 Analyzing the algorithm Feedback 5.4.3 Finding a good partition 5.5 Finding balanced cuts and other applications 5.5.1 Finding balanced cuts 5.5.2 Applications of balanced cut theorems 5.6 Conclusions Approximation Algorithms for Finding Highly Connected Suhgraphs Samir KhulJer 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Outline of chapter and techniques 6.2 Edge-connectivity problems 6.2.1 Weighted edge-connectivity 6.2.2 Unweighted edge-connectivity 6.3 Vertex-connectivity problems 6.3.1 Weighted vertex-connectivity 6.3.2 Unweighted vertex-connectivity 6.4 Strong-connectivity problems 6.4.1 Polynomial time approximation algorithms 6.4.2 Nearly linear-time implementation 6.5 Connectivity augmentation 6.5.1 increasing edge connectivity from I to 2 6.5.2 Increasing vertex connectivity from I to 2 6.5.3 Increasing edge-connectivity to 3. Algorithms for Finding Low Degree Structures Balaji Raghavachari 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Toughness and degree 7.3 Matchings and MDST 7.4 MDST within one of optimal 7.4.1 Witness sets 7.4.2 The △* 1 algorithm 7.4.3 Performance analysis 7.5 Local search techniques 7.5.1 MDST problem 7.5.2 Constrained forest problems 7.5.3 Two-connected subgraphs 7.6 Problems with edge weights - points in Euclidean spaces 7.7 Open problems 8 Approximation Algorithms for Geometric Problems Marshall Bern and David Eppstein 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Overview of topics 8.1.2 Special nature of geometric problems 8.2 Traveling salesman problem 8.2.1 Christofides algorithm 8.2.2 Heuristics 8.2.3 TSP with neighborhoods 8.3 Steiner tree problem 8.3.1 Steiner ratios 8.3.2 Better approximations 8.4 Minimum weight triangulation 8.4.1 Triangulation without Steiner points 8.4.2 Steiner triangulation 8.5 Clustering 8.5.1 Minmax k-clustering 8.5.2 k-minimum spanning tree 8.6 Separation problems 8.6.1 Polygon separation 8.6.2 Polyhedron separation 8.6.3 Point set separation 8.7 Odds and ends 8.7.1 Covering orthogonal polygons by rectangles 8.7.2 Packing squares with fixed comers 8.7.3 Largest congruent subsets 8.7.4 Polygon bisection 8.7.5 Graph embedding 8.7.6 Low-degree spanning trees 8.7.7 Shortest paths in space 8.7.8 Longest subgraph problems 8.8 Conclusions 9 Various Notions of Approximations: Good, Better, Best, and More Dorit S. Hochbaum 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Overview of chapter 9.2 Good: fixed constant approximations 9.2.1 The weighted undirected vertex feedback set problem 9.2.2 The shortest superstring problem 9.2.3 How maximization versus minimization affects approximations 9.3 Better: approximation schemes 9.3.1 A fully polynomial approximation scheme for the knapsack problem 9.3.2 The minimum makespan and the technique of dual approximations 9.3.3 Geometric packing and covering--the shifting technique 9.4 Best: unless NP = P 9.4.1 The k-center problem 9.4.2 A powerful approximation technique for bottleneck problems 9.4.3 Best possible parallel approximation algorithms 9.5 Better than best 9.5.1 A FPAS for bin packing 9.5.2 A 9/8-approximation algorithm for ~dge coloring of multigraphs and beyond 9.6 Wonderful: within one unit of optimum 10 Hardness of Approximations San jeer Arora and Carsten Lund 10.1 Introduction 10.2 How to prove inapproximability results 10.2.1 The canonical problems 10.2.2 Inapproximability results for the canonical problems 10.2.3 Gap preserving reductions 10.3 Inapproximability results for problems in class I 10.3.1 Max-SNP 10.4 Inapproximability results for problems in class II 10.4.1 SETCOVER 10.5 Inapproximability results lor problems in class 111 10.5.1 LABELCOVER maximization version ,. 10.5.2 LABELCOVER mtn version 10.5.3 Nearest lattice vector problem 10.6 Inapproximability results for problems in class IV 10.6.1 CLIQUE 10.6.2 COLORING 10.7 Inapproximability results at a glance 10.7.1 How to prove other hardness results: a case study 10.8 prohabilistically checkable proofs and inapproximability 10.8.1 The PCP theorem 10.8.2 Connection to inapproximability of MAX-3SAT 10.8.3 Where the gap comes from 10.9 Open problems 10.10 Chapter notes 11 Randomized Approximation Algorithms in Combinatorial Optimization Rajeev Motwani, Joseph Seffi Naor, and Prabhakar Raghavan 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Rounding linear programs 11.2.1 The integer multicommodity flow problem 11.2.2 Covering and packing problems 11.2.3 The maximum satisfiability problem 11.2.4 Related work 11.3 Semidefinite programming 11.3.1 The maximum cut problem 11.3.2 The graph coloring problem 11.4 Concluding remarks 11.4.1 Derandomizafion and parallelization 11.4.2 Computational experience 11.4.3 Open problems 12 The Markov Chain Monte Carlo Method: An Approach to Approximate Counting and Integration Mark Jerrum and Alistair Sinclair 12.1 Introduction 12.2 An illustrative example 12.3 Two techniques for bounding the mixing time 12.3.1 Canonical paths 12.3.2 Conductance 12.4 A more complex example: monomer-dimer systems 12.5 More applications 12.5.1 The permanent 12.5.2 Volume of convex bodies 12.5.3 Statistical physics 12.5.4 Matroid bases: an open problem 12.6 The Metropolis algorithm and simulated annealing Appendix 13 Online Computation Sandy Irani and Anna R. Karlin 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Three examples of competitive analysis 13.2.1 Paging 13.2.2 The k-server problem 13.2.3 Metrical task systems 13.3 Theoretical underpinnings: deterministic algorithms 13.3.1 Lower bounds 13.3.2 Design principles 13.3.3 Bounding competitiveness 13.4 Theoretical underpinnings: randomized algorithms 13.4.1 Example: paging 13.4.2 Lower bounds 13.4.3 The relationships between the adversaries 13.5 The k-server problem revisited 13.5.1 History. 13.5.2 Notation and properties of work functions. 13.5.3 The work function algorithm WFA 13.5.4 Proof of 2k - 1 -competitiveness 13.5.5 The duality lemma 13.5.6 The potential function 13.5.7 Quasi-convexity and the duality lemma 13.6 Online load balancing and virtual circuit routing 13.6.1 Load balancing on unrelated machines 13.6.2 Online virtual circuit routing 13.6.3 Recent results 13.7 Variants of competitive analysis 13.8 Conclusions and directions for future research Glossary of Problems Index
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