CMU Computer Systems: Machine-Level Programming (Procedures)

Mechanisms in Procedures

• Passing control
  • To beggining of procedure code
  • Back to return point
• Passing data
  • Procedure arguments
  • Return value
• Memory management
  • Allocate during procedure execution
  • Deallocate upon return
• Mechanisms all implemented with machine instructions
• x86-64 implemention of a procedure uses only those mechanisms required

Procedures

• Stack Structure
• Calling Conventions
  • Passing control
  • Passing data
  • Managing local data
• Illustration of Recursion

x86-64 Stack

• Region of memory managed with stack discipline
• Grows toward lower address
• Register %rsp contains lowest stack address
  • address of “top” element
• Operation: Push and Pop

Procedure Control Flow

• Use stack to support procedure call and return
• Procedure call: call label
  • Push return address on stack
  • Jump to label
• Return address:
  • Address of the next instruction right after call
  • Example from disassembly
• Procedure return: ret
  • Pop address from stack
  • Jump to address

Procedure Data Flow (ABI rule)

• Registers
  • First 6 arguments: %rdi %rsi %rdx %rcx %r8 %r9
• Return value: %rax
• Only allocate stack space when needed

Stack-Based Languages

• Languages that support recursion
  • C, Pascal, Java
  • Code must be “Reentrant”
    • Multiple simultaneous instantiations of single procedure
  • Need some place to store state of each instantiation
    • Arguments
    • Local variables
    • Return pointer
• Stack discipline
  • State for given procedure needed for limited time
    • From when called to when return
  • Callee returns before caller does
• Stack allocated in Frames
  • state for single procedure instantiation

Stack Frames

• Contents
  • Return information
  • Local storage (if needed)
  • Temporary space (if needed)
• Management
  • Space allocated when enter procedure
    • “Set-up” code
    • Includes push by call instruction
  • Deallocated when return
    • “Finish” code
    • Includes pop by ret instruction

Register Saving Conventions

• “Caller Saved”
  • Caller saves temporary values in its frame before the call
• “Callee Saved”
  • Callee saves temporary values in its frame before using
  • Callee restores them before returning to caller

x86-64 Linux Register Usage

• %rax
  • Return value
  • Also caller-saved
  • Can be modified by procedure
• %rdi, …, %r9
  • Arguments
  • Also caller-saved
  • Can be modified by procedure
• %r10, %r11
  • Caller-saved
  • Can be modified by procedure
• %rbx, %r12, %r13, %r14
  • Callee-saved
  • Callee must save & restore
• %rbp
  • Callee-saved
  • Callee must save & restore
  • May be used as frame pointer
  • Can mix & match
• %rsp
  • Special form of callee save
  • Restored to original value upon exit from procedure

Observations About Recursion

• Handled Without Special Consideration
  • Stack frames mean that each function call has private storage
    • Saved registers & local variables
    • Saved return pointer
  • Register saving conventions prevent one function call from corrupting another’s call
    • Unless the C code explicitly does so
  • Stack discipline follows call/ return pattern
• Also works for mutual recursion
  • P calls Q; Q calls P

x86-64 Procedure Summary

• Important Points
  • Stack is the right data structure for procedure call/ return
    • If P calls Q, then Q returns before P
• Recursion (& mutual recursion) handled by normal calling conventions
  • Can safely store values in local stack frame and in callee-saved registers
  • Put function arguments at top of stack
  • Result return in %rax
• Pointers are addresses of values
  • On stack or global