ch.2. 量子电路模型
2.1. 信息与计算属于物理概念
计算机科学与物理体系的对比
计算机科学 | 物理体系 |
---|---|
计算 | 运动 |
输入 | 始态 |
规则 | 运动定律 |
输出 | 末态 |
(Rolf Landauer, 1961):信息是物理的,它被编码于物理系统的状态中
(David Deutsch 1985):计算是物理过程,它体现于实际的可逆物理过程中
经典信息可以被编码于经典体系,而量子信息则可以被编码于量子体系
经典计算可以被编码于经典物理过程,而量子计算则可以被编码于量子物理过程
2.2. 量子信息和量子计算的定义
定义:(理论物理)QIC是对使用量子力学的基本原理进行信息处理与计算的研究
定义:(实验物理)QIC是对在量子力学体系中进行信息处理和计算的研究
经典力学是量子力学,但量子力学不是经典力学
定义:(经典信息)QIC是对结合量子体系与经典体系去进行信息处理和计算的研究
定义:(量子力学)QIC代表了量子力学与从信息和计算中对量子力学基本原理的理解的当代发展(当代量子力学=量子信息)
2.3. Qubit
全名:Quantum Binary Digit
是量子信息的最小单位
取值范围集是二维的希尔伯特空间 H 2 \mathcal{H}_2 H2= s p a n { ∣ 0 ⟩ , ∣ 1 ⟩ } span\{|0\rangle, |1\rangle\} span{∣0⟩,∣1⟩}
态:
α
∣
0
⟩
+
β
∣
1
⟩
,
α
,
β
∈
C
,
∣
α
∣
2
+
∣
β
∣
2
=
1
\alpha|0\rangle+\beta|1\rangle,\ \alpha,\ \beta\in C,\ |\alpha|^2+|\beta|^2=1
α∣0⟩+β∣1⟩, α, β∈C, ∣α∣2+∣β∣2=1
根据线性叠加原理,藏在
H
2
\mathcal H_2
H2中的信息是无限多的
复制:无克隆定理。没有完美的量子复制机
测量:由量子跃迁或波函数坍塌导致的不可逆过程
物理实现:电子自旋或光子极化
态矢组成一个qubit,
∣
0
⟩
,
∣
1
⟩
|0\rangle,\ |1\rangle
∣0⟩, ∣1⟩称之为计算的基
∣
ψ
⟩
=
α
∣
0
⟩
+
β
∣
1
⟩
|\psi\rangle=\alpha|0\rangle+\beta|1\rangle
∣ψ⟩=α∣0⟩+β∣1⟩
将相位因子作用在态矢两边:
e
i
r
∣
ψ
⟩
=
e
i
r
(
α
∣
0
⟩
+
β
∣
1
⟩
)
e^{ir}|\psi\rangle=e^{ir}\left(\alpha|0\rangle+\beta|1\rangle\right)
eir∣ψ⟩=eir(α∣0⟩+β∣1⟩)
对于态矢而言,
α
,
β
\alpha,\ \beta
α, β是复数,有四个实数
∣
α
∣
2
+
∣
β
∣
2
=
1
|\alpha|^2+|\beta|^2=1
∣α∣2+∣β∣2=1,有一个实数约束
无意义全局相位(无物理意义):
e
i
r
,
r
∈
R
e^{ir},\ r\in R
eir, r∈R,有一个实数约束
因此,可以用两个无关的实数变量
(
θ
,
φ
)
(\theta,\varphi)
(θ,φ)表示一个qubit(4-2=2自由度):
∣
ψ
+
(
θ
,
φ
)
⟩
=
cos
θ
2
∣
0
⟩
+
e
i
φ
sin
θ
2
∣
1
⟩
|\psi_+(\theta,\varphi)\rangle=\cos\dfrac{\theta}{2}|0\rangle+e^{i\varphi}\sin\dfrac{\theta}{2}|1\rangle
∣ψ+(θ,φ)⟩=cos2θ∣0⟩+eiφsin2θ∣1⟩
其中,
∣
0
⟩
|0\rangle
∣0⟩=
(
1
0
)
\left(\begin{matrix}1\\0\end{matrix}\right)
(10),
∣
1
⟩
|1\rangle
∣1⟩=
(
0
1
)
\left(\begin{matrix}0\\1\end{matrix}\right)
(01)
相应的约束为:
0
≤
θ
<
π
0\le\theta<\pi
0≤θ<π
0
≤
φ
<
2
π
0\le\varphi<2\pi
0≤φ<2π
这正好是球坐标的两个参数,因此可以对应球体
在
∣
n
→
∣
=
1
|\overrightarrow n|=1
∣n∣=1的Bloch球体中,定义Bloch矢量:
n
→
=
(
sin
θ
cos
φ
,
sin
θ
sin
φ
,
cos
θ
)
\overrightarrow n=(\sin\theta\cos\varphi,\ \sin\theta\sin\varphi,\ \cos\theta)
n=(sinθcosφ, sinθsinφ, cosθ)
则相比于由0和1表达的经典信息而言,量子信息是一个球
(1)
θ
=
π
2
,
φ
=
0
\theta=\dfrac{\pi}{2},\ \varphi=0
θ=2π, φ=0时,
n
→
=
e
x
→
=
(
1
,
0
,
0
)
\overrightarrow n=\overrightarrow{e_x}=(1,0,0)
n=ex=(1,0,0),
∣
ψ
+
(
e
x
→
)
⟩
=
1
2
(
∣
0
⟩
+
∣
1
⟩
)
=
∣
+
⟩
|\psi_+(\overrightarrow{e_x})\rangle=\dfrac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|0\rangle+|1\rangle\right)=|+\rangle
∣ψ+(ex)⟩=21(∣0⟩+∣1⟩)=∣+⟩
(2)
θ
=
π
2
,
φ
=
π
\theta=\dfrac{\pi}{2},\ \varphi=\pi
θ=2π, φ=π时,
n
→
=
−
e
x
→
=
(
−
1
,
0
,
0
)
\overrightarrow n=-\overrightarrow {e_x}=(-1,0,0)
n=−ex=(−1,0,0),
∣
ψ
+
(
−
e
x
→
)
⟩
=
1
2
(
∣
0
⟩
−
∣
1
⟩
)
=
∣
−
⟩
|\psi_+(-\overrightarrow {e_x})\rangle=\dfrac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|0\rangle-|1\rangle)=|-\rang
∣ψ+(−ex)⟩=21(∣0⟩−∣1⟩)=∣−⟩
(3)
θ
=
π
2
,
φ
=
π
2
\theta=\dfrac{\pi}{2},\ \varphi=\dfrac{\pi}{2}
θ=2π, φ=2π时,
n
→
=
e
y
→
=
(
0
,
1
,
0
)
\overrightarrow n=\overrightarrow {e_y}=(0,1,0)
n=ey=(0,1,0),
∣
ψ
+
(
e
y
→
)
⟩
=
1
2
(
∣
0
⟩
+
i
∣
1
⟩
)
=
∣
+
⟩
′
|\psi_+(\overrightarrow {e_y})\rangle=\dfrac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|0\rangle+i|1\rangle)=|+\rang'
∣ψ+(ey)⟩=21(∣0⟩+i∣1⟩)=∣+⟩′
(4)
θ
=
π
2
,
φ
=
3
π
2
\theta=\dfrac{\pi}{2},\ \varphi=\dfrac{3\pi}{2}
θ=2π, φ=23π时,
n
→
=
−
e
y
→
=
(
0
,
−
1
,
0
)
\overrightarrow n=-\overrightarrow {e_y}=(0,-1,0)
n=−ey=(0,−1,0),
∣
ψ
+
(
−
e
y
→
)
⟩
=
1
2
(
∣
0
⟩
−
i
∣
1
⟩
)
=
∣
−
⟩
′
|\psi_+(-\overrightarrow {e_y})\rangle=\dfrac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|0\rangle-i|1\rangle)=|-\rang'
∣ψ+(−ey)⟩=21(∣0⟩−i∣1⟩)=∣−⟩′
(5)
θ
=
0
,
φ
\theta=0, \varphi
θ=0,φ任意时,
n
→
=
e
z
→
=
(
0
,
0
,
1
)
\overrightarrow n=\overrightarrow {e_z}=(0,0,1)
n=ez=(0,0,1),
∣
ψ
+
(
e
z
→
)
⟩
=
∣
0
⟩
|\psi_+(\overrightarrow{e_z})\rang=|0\rang
∣ψ+(ez)⟩=∣0⟩
(6)
θ
=
π
,
φ
\theta=\pi, \varphi
θ=π,φ任意时,
n
→
=
−
e
z
→
=
(
0
,
0
,
−
1
)
\overrightarrow n=-\overrightarrow {e_z}=(0,0,-1)
n=−ez=(0,0,−1),
∣
ψ
+
(
e
z
→
)
⟩
=
∣
1
⟩
|\psi_+(\overrightarrow{e_z})\rang=|1\rang
∣ψ+(ez)⟩=∣1⟩
qubit的更稳定的形式:
{
∣
ψ
+
(
θ
,
φ
)
⟩
∣
0
<
θ
≤
π
,
0
≤
φ
<
2
π
}
=
{
∣
ψ
⟩
∣
σ
n
∣
ψ
⟩
=
∣
ψ
⟩
}
\{|\psi_+(\theta,\varphi)\rang|0<\theta\le\pi,\ 0\le\varphi<2\pi\}=\{|\psi\rang|\sigma_n|\psi\rang=|\psi\rang\}
{∣ψ+(θ,φ)⟩∣0<θ≤π, 0≤φ<2π}={∣ψ⟩∣σn∣ψ⟩=∣ψ⟩}
其中:
σ
n
=
σ
→
⋅
n
→
=
σ
x
n
x
+
σ
y
n
y
+
σ
z
n
z
\sigma_n=\overrightarrow \sigma\cdot\overrightarrow n=\sigma_xn_x+\sigma_yn_y+\sigma_zn_z
σn=σ⋅n=σxnx+σyny+σznz
σ
→
=
(
σ
x
,
σ
y
,
σ
z
)
\overrightarrow\sigma=(\sigma_x,\ \sigma_y,\ \sigma_z)
σ=(σx, σy, σz)为泡利矩阵,
n
→
=
(
n
x
,
n
y
,
n
z
)
\overrightarrow n=(n_x,\ n_y,\ n_z)
n=(nx, ny, nz)为Bloch矢量
σ x = ( 0 1 1 0 ) , σ y = ( 0 − i i 0 ) , σ z = ( 1 0 0 − 1 ) \sigma_x=\left(\begin{matrix}0&1\\1 &0\end{matrix}\right),\ \sigma_y=\left(\begin{matrix}0&-i\\i &0\end{matrix}\right),\ \sigma_z=\left(\begin{matrix}1&0\\0 &-1\end{matrix}\right) σx=(0110), σy=(0i−i0), σz=(100−1)
σ n = ( cos θ sin θ e − i φ sin θ e i φ − cos θ ) \sigma_n=\left(\begin{matrix}\cos\theta & \sin\theta e^{-i\varphi}\\\sin\theta e^{i\varphi} & -\cos\theta\end{matrix}\right) σn=(cosθsinθeiφsinθe−iφ−cosθ)
泡利算符的作用
(1)
n
→
=
e
x
→
\overrightarrow n=\overrightarrow {e_x}
n=ex时,
σ
n
=
σ
x
=
X
\sigma_n=\sigma_x=X
σn=σx=X(记为
X
X
X)
X
∣
ψ
+
(
±
e
x
→
)
⟩
=
±
∣
ψ
+
(
±
e
x
→
)
⟩
X|\psi_+(\pm \overrightarrow {e_x})\rang = \pm |\psi_+(\pm \overrightarrow {e_x})\rang
X∣ψ+(±ex)⟩=±∣ψ+(±ex)⟩
即:
X
∣
±
⟩
=
±
∣
±
⟩
X|\pm\rang=\pm|\pm\rang
X∣±⟩=±∣±⟩
(2)
n
→
=
e
y
→
\overrightarrow n=\overrightarrow {e_y}
n=ey时,
σ
n
=
σ
y
=
Y
\sigma_n=\sigma_y=Y
σn=σy=Y(记为
Y
Y
Y)
Y
∣
ψ
+
(
±
e
y
→
)
⟩
=
±
∣
ψ
+
(
±
e
y
→
)
⟩
Y|\psi_+(\pm \overrightarrow {e_y})\rang = \pm |\psi_+(\pm \overrightarrow {e_y})\rang
Y∣ψ+(±ey)⟩=±∣ψ+(±ey)⟩
即:
Y
∣
±
⟩
′
=
±
∣
±
⟩
′
Y|\pm\rang'=\pm|\pm\rang'
Y∣±⟩′=±∣±⟩′
(3)
n
→
=
e
z
→
\overrightarrow n=\overrightarrow {e_z}
n=ez时,
σ
n
=
σ
z
=
Z
\sigma_n=\sigma_z=Z
σn=σz=Z(记为
Z
Z
Z)
Z
∣
ψ
+
(
±
e
z
→
)
⟩
=
±
∣
ψ
+
(
±
e
z
→
)
⟩
Z|\psi_+(\pm \overrightarrow {e_z})\rang = \pm |\psi_+(\pm \overrightarrow {e_z})\rang
Z∣ψ+(±ez)⟩=±∣ψ+(±ez)⟩
即:
Z
∣
i
⟩
=
(
−
1
)
i
∣
i
⟩
Z|i\rang=(-1)^i|i\rang
Z∣i⟩=(−1)i∣i⟩
Note 1: ⟨ ψ + ( θ , φ ) ∣ σ → ⋅ m → ∣ ψ + ( θ , φ ) ⟩ = m → ⋅ n → \lang\psi_+(\theta,\ \varphi)|\overrightarrow \sigma\cdot\overrightarrow m|\psi_+(\theta,\ \varphi)\rang=\overrightarrow m\cdot \overrightarrow n ⟨ψ+(θ, φ)∣σ⋅m∣ψ+(θ, φ)⟩=m⋅n
Note 2:
∣
ψ
+
(
θ
,
φ
)
⟩
=
u
1
/
2
(
e
z
→
→
n
→
)
∣
0
⟩
|\psi_+(\theta,\ \varphi)\rang=u_{1/2}(\overrightarrow {e_z}\rightarrow \overrightarrow n)|0\rang
∣ψ+(θ, φ)⟩=u1/2(ez→n)∣0⟩
其中:
u
1
/
2
(
e
z
→
→
n
→
)
=
(
cos
θ
2
−
e
−
i
φ
sin
θ
2
e
i
φ
sin
θ
2
cos
θ
2
)
u_{1/2}(\overrightarrow {e_z}\rightarrow \overrightarrow n)=\left(\begin{matrix}\cos\dfrac{\theta}{2} & -e^{-i\varphi}\sin\dfrac{\theta}{2} \\ e^{i\varphi}\sin\dfrac{\theta}{2} & \cos\dfrac{\theta}{2}\end{matrix}\right)
u1/2(ez→n)=⎝⎜⎛cos2θeiφsin2θ−e−iφsin2θcos2θ⎠⎟⎞
SU(2)群的旋转表示,描述了绕 e z → + σ n → \overrightarrow {e_z}+\sigma\overrightarrow n ez+σn的旋转
Note 3:
σ
n
2
=
1
,
σ
m
2
=
1
\sigma_n^2=1,\ \sigma_m^2=1
σn2=1, σm2=1,特征值:
±
1
\pm1
±1
σ
n
∣
ψ
±
(
θ
,
φ
)
⟩
=
±
∣
ψ
±
(
θ
,
φ
)
⟩
\sigma_n|\psi_\pm(\theta,\varphi)\rang=\pm|\psi_\pm(\theta,\varphi)\rang
σn∣ψ±(θ,φ)⟩=±∣ψ±(θ,φ)⟩
∣ ψ − ( θ , φ ) ⟩ = − e − i φ sin θ 2 ∣ 0 ⟩ + cos θ 2 ∣ 1 ⟩ |\psi_-(\theta,\varphi)\rang=-e^{-i\varphi}\sin\dfrac{\theta}{2}|0\rang+\cos\dfrac{\theta}{2}|1\rang ∣ψ−(θ,φ)⟩=−e−iφsin2θ∣0⟩+cos2θ∣1⟩也能够表示一个qubit
密度矩阵
而密度矩阵也能构成一个qubit:
定义:当
ρ
≥
0
\rho\ge 0
ρ≥0并且
t
r
(
ρ
)
=
1
tr(\rho)=1
tr(ρ)=1时,
ρ
\rho
ρ是一个密度矩阵
ρ
(
p
→
)
=
1
2
(
I
2
+
p
→
⋅
σ
→
)
\rho (\overrightarrow{p})=\dfrac{1}{2}(I_2+\overrightarrow p\cdot \overrightarrow \sigma)
ρ(p)=21(I2+p⋅σ)
其中,
p
→
\overrightarrow p
p是极化向量,
I
2
I_2
I2是
2
×
2
2\times 2
2×2的单位阵,
σ
\sigma
σ是泡利矩阵
举例1: ∣ p → ∣ = 1 |\overrightarrow p|=1 ∣p∣=1时,是Bloch向量 p → = n → \overrightarrow p=\overrightarrow n p=n, ρ ( n → ) = ∣ ψ + ( n → ) ⟩ ⟨ ψ + ( n → ) ∣ \rho(\overrightarrow n)=|\psi_+(\overrightarrow n)\rang\lang\psi_+(\overrightarrow n)| ρ(n)=∣ψ+(n)⟩⟨ψ+(n)∣。属于纯状态(pure state)情形(量子统计力学)
举例2: ∣ p → ∣ < 1 |\overrightarrow p|<1 ∣p∣<1,属于混合态(mixed state)情形
举例3: ∣ p → ∣ = 0 |\overrightarrow p|=0 ∣p∣=0, ρ ( 0 ) = 1 2 I 2 \rho(0)=\dfrac{1}{2}I_2 ρ(0)=21I2
2.4. 双qubit体系
对于双qubit体系,计算的基为
H
4
=
H
2
⊗
H
2
\mathcal H_4=\mathcal H_2 \otimes \mathcal H_2
H4=H2⊗H2
H
4
=
s
p
a
n
{
∣
x
1
x
2
⟩
∣
x
1
,
x
2
=
0
,
1
}
=
s
p
a
n
{
∣
00
⟩
,
∣
01
⟩
,
∣
10
⟩
,
∣
11
⟩
}
\mathcal H_4=span\{|x_1x_2\rang|x_1,\ x_2=0,1\}\\=span\{|00\rang,\ |01\rang,\ |10\rang,\ |11\rang\}
H4=span{∣x1x2⟩∣x1, x2=0,1}=span{∣00⟩, ∣01⟩, ∣10⟩, ∣11⟩}
Bell基: H 4 = s p a n { ∣ β x 1 x 2 ⟩ ∣ x 1 , x 2 = 0 , 1 } \mathcal H_4=span\{|\beta_{x_1x_2}\rang|x_1,\ x_2=0,1\} H4=span{∣βx1x2⟩∣x1, x2=0,1}
Bell态:
∣
β
00
⟩
=
∣
00
⟩
+
∣
11
⟩
2
,
∣
β
10
⟩
=
∣
00
⟩
−
∣
11
⟩
2
|\beta_{00}\rang=\dfrac{|00\rang+|11\rang}{\sqrt 2},\ |\beta_{10}\rang=\dfrac{|00\rang-|11\rang}{\sqrt 2}
∣β00⟩=2∣00⟩+∣11⟩, ∣β10⟩=2∣00⟩−∣11⟩
∣ β 01 ⟩ = ∣ 01 ⟩ + ∣ 10 ⟩ 2 , ∣ β 11 ⟩ = ∣ 01 ⟩ − ∣ 10 ⟩ 2 |\beta_{01}\rang=\dfrac{|01\rang+|10\rang}{2},\ |\beta_{11}\rang = \dfrac{|01\rang-|10\rang}{\sqrt 2} ∣β01⟩=2∣01⟩+∣10⟩, ∣β11⟩=2∣01⟩−∣10⟩
∣ β x 1 x 2 ⟩ = 1 2 ( ∣ 0 x 2 ⟩ + ( − 1 ) x 1 ∣ 0 x 2 ‾ ⟩ ) |\beta_{x_1x_2}\rang=\dfrac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|0x_2\rang+(-1)^{x_1}|0\overline{x_2}\rang\right) ∣βx1x2⟩=21(∣0x2⟩+(−1)x1∣0x2⟩)
Note 1: ∣ β x 1 x 2 ⟩ , x 1 , x 2 = 0 , 1 |\beta_{x_1x_2}\rang,\ x_1,x_2=0,1 ∣βx1x2⟩, x1,x2=0,1被称作Bell不等价或EPR pair态(Einstein-Poldolskky-Rossen)的Bell态
Note 2:正交基
{
∣
β
x
1
x
2
⟩
∣
x
1
,
x
2
=
0
,
1
}
\{|\beta_{x_1x_2}\rang|x_1,x_2=0,1\}
{∣βx1x2⟩∣x1,x2=0,1}具有正交关系
⟨
β
x
1
x
2
∣
β
x
1
′
x
2
′
⟩
=
δ
x
1
x
1
′
δ
x
2
x
2
′
\lang\beta_{x_1x_2}|\beta_{x_1'x_2'}\rang=\delta_{x_1x_1'}\delta_{x_2x_2'}
⟨βx1x2∣βx1′x2′⟩=δx1x1′δx2x2′
关系:
∑
x
1
x
2
=
0
,
1
∣
β
x
1
x
2
⟩
⟨
β
x
1
x
2
∣
=
I
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\sum\limits_{x_1x_2=0,\ 1}|\beta_{x_1x_2}\rang\lang\beta_{x_1x_2}|=I_2\otimes I_2
x1x2=0, 1∑∣βx1x2⟩⟨βx1x2∣=I2⊗I2
Note 3:Bell变换是Bell基和计算的基之间的独一无二的变换
2.5. 三qubit体系
H 8 = H 2 ⊗ H 2 ⊗ H 2 = s p a n { ∣ 000 ⟩ , ∣ 001 ⟩ , ⋯ , ∣ 111 ⟩ } \mathcal H_8=\mathcal H_2\otimes\mathcal H_2\otimes\mathcal H_2=span\{|000\rang,\ |001\rang,\ \cdots\ ,|111\rang\} H8=H2⊗H2⊗H2=span{∣000⟩, ∣001⟩, ⋯ ,∣111⟩}
GHZ基:
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|GHZ(x_1,x_2,x_3)\rang_{\pm}=\dfrac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|x_1x_2x_3\rang\pm|\overline{x_1}\overline{x_2}\overline{x_3}\rang\right)
∣GHZ(x1,x2,x3)⟩±=21(∣x1x2x3⟩±∣x1x2x3⟩)
Note:GHZ基是Bell基的延伸
2.6. n-qubit
H 2 n \mathcal H_{2^n} H2n空间
GHZ基:
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|GHZ(x_1,x_2,x_3,\dots\ ,x_n)\rang_{\pm}=\dfrac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|x_1x_2x_3\dots x_n\rang\pm|\overline{x_1}\overline{x_2}\overline{x_3}\dots\overline{x_n}\rang\right)
∣GHZ(x1,x2,x3,… ,xn)⟩±=21(∣x1x2x3…xn⟩±∣x1x2x3…xn⟩)