Neural Networks and Deep Learning读书笔记--神经网络改进原理代码（network2）

和 network.py 一样，主要部分就是 Network 类了，用这个来表示神经网络。使用一个 sizes 的列表来对每个对应层进行初始化，默认使用交叉熵作为代价 cost 参数：

class Network(object):

    def __init__(self, sizes, cost=CrossEntropyCost):
        self.num_layers = len(sizes)
        self.sizes = sizes
        self.default_weight_initializer()
        self.cost=cost

最开始几行里的 init 方法的和 network.py 中一样，可以轻易弄懂。但是下面两行是新的， default_weight_initializer 方法，使用了改进后的初始化权重方法(具体见上一篇笔记)，使用了均值为 0 而标准差为1/根号n ，n 为对应的输入连接个数。使用 均值为 0 而标准差为 1 的高斯分布来初始化偏置。下面是代码：

  def default_weight_initializer(self):
        self.biases = [np.random.randn(y, 1) for y in self.sizes[1:]]
        self.weights = [np.random.randn(y, x)/np.sqrt(x) 
                        for x, y in zip(self.sizes[:-1], self.sizes[1:])]

和network.py 一样，没有对第一层的神经元的偏置进行初始化。因为第一层其实是输入层，所以不需要引入任何的偏置。

作为 defaultweightinitializer 的补充，同样包含了一个 large_weight_initializer 方法。这个方法使用了第一章中的观点初始化了权重和偏置。代码也就仅仅是和 default_weight_initializer 差了一点点了：

  def large_weight_initializer(self):
        self.biases = [np.random.randn(y, 1) for y in self.sizes[1:]]
        self.weights = [np.random.randn(y, x) 
                        for x, y in zip(self.sizes[:-1], self.sizes[1:])]

初始化方法 init 中的第二个新的东西就是我们初始化了 cost 属性。为了理解这个工作的原理，让我们看一下用来表示交叉熵代价的类（如果你不熟悉 Python 的静态方法，你可以忽略 @staticmethod 装饰符，仅仅把 fn 和 delta 看作普通方法。如果你想知道细节，所有的 @staticmethod 所做的是告诉 Python 解释器其随后的方法完全不依赖于对象。这就是为什么 self 没有作为参数传入 fn 和 delta）

class CrossEntropyCost(object):

    @staticmethod
    def fn(a, y):
        return np.sum(np.nan_to_num(-y*np.log(a)-(1-y)*np.log(1-a)))

    @staticmethod
    def delta(z, a, y):
        return (a-y)

（注意，np.nantonum 调用确保了 Numpy 正确处理接近 0 的对数值）
即使使用的交叉熵，在数学上看是一个函数，这里我们仍用 Python 的类而不是 Python 函数实现了它。
因为代价函数在 我们的网络中扮演了两种不同的角色。明显的角色就是代价是输出激活值 a 和目标输出 y 差距优劣的度量。这个角色通过 CrossEntropyCost.fn 方法来扮演。
但是代价函数其实还有另一个角色。回想第二章中运行反向传播算法时，我们需要计算网络输出误差，delta^L。这种形式的输出误差依赖于代价函数的选择：不同的代价函数，输出误差的形式就不同。对于交叉熵函数，输出误差：δL= aL−y.所以，我们定义了第二个方法，CrossEntropyCost.delta，目的就是让网络知道如何进行输出误差的计算。然后我们将这两个组合在一个包含所有需要知道的有关代价函数信息的类中。

类似地，network2.py 还包含了一个表示二次代价函数的类。这个是用来和第一章的结果进行对比的，因为后面我们几乎都在使用交叉函数。代码如下。 QuadraticCost.fn 方法是关于网络输出 a 和目标输出 y 的二次代价函数的直接计算结果。由 QuadraticCost.delta 返回的值基于二次代价函数的误差表达式(30)，我们在第二章中得到它。

class QuadraticCost(object):

    @staticmethod
    def fn(a, y):
        return 0.5*np.linalg.norm(a-y)**2

    @staticmethod
    def delta(z, a, y):
        return (a-y) * sigmoid_prime(z)

上面是 network2.py 和 network.py 两个实现之间的主要差别。还有一些更小的变动，下面会进行介绍，包含 L2 规范化的实现。

完整代码

"""network2.py
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

An improved version of network.py, implementing the stochastic
gradient descent learning algorithm for a feedforward neural network.
Improvements include the addition of the cross-entropy cost function,
regularization, and better initialization of network weights.  Note
that I have focused on making the code simple, easily readable, and
easily modifiable.  It is not optimized, and omits many desirable
features.

"""

#### Libraries
# Standard library
import json
import random
import sys

# Third-party libraries
import numpy as np


#### Define the quadratic and cross-entropy cost functions

class QuadraticCost(object):

    @staticmethod
    def fn(a, y):
        """Return the cost associated with an output ``a`` and desired output
        ``y``.

        """
        return 0.5*np.linalg.norm(a-y)**2

    @staticmethod
    def delta(z, a, y):
        """Return the error delta from the output layer."""
        return (a-y) * sigmoid_prime(z)


class CrossEntropyCost(object):

    @staticmethod
    def fn(a, y):
        """Return the cost associated with an output ``a`` and desired output
        ``y``.  Note that np.nan_to_num is used to ensure numerical
        stability.  In particular, if both ``a`` and ``y`` have a 1.0
        in the same slot, then the expression (1-y)*np.log(1-a)
        returns nan.  The np.nan_to_num ensures that that is converted
        to the correct value (0.0).

        """
        return np.sum(np.nan_to_num(-y*np.log(a)-(1-y)*np.log(1-a)))

    @staticmethod
    def delta(z, a, y):
        """Return the error delta from the output layer.  Note that the
        parameter ``z`` is not used by the method.  It is included in
        the method's parameters in order to make the interface
        consistent with the delta method for other cost classes.

        """
        return (a-y)


#### Main Network class
class Network(object):

    def __init__(self, sizes, cost=CrossEntropyCost):
        """The list ``sizes`` contains the number of neurons in the respective
        layers of the network.  For example, if the list was [2, 3, 1]
        then it would be a three-layer network, with the first layer
        containing 2 neurons, the second layer 3 neurons, and the
        third layer 1 neuron.  The biases and weights for the network
        are initialized randomly, using
        ``self.default_weight_initializer`` (see docstring for that
        method).

        """
        self.num_layers = len(sizes)
        self.sizes = sizes
        self.default_weight_initializer()
        self.cost=cost

    def default_weight_initializer(self):
        """Initialize each weight using a Gaussian distribution with mean 0
        and standard deviation 1 over the square root of the number of
        weights connecting to the same neuron.  Initialize the biases
        using a Gaussian distribution with mean 0 and standard
        deviation 1.

        Note that the first layer is assumed to be an input layer, and
        by convention we won't set any biases for those neurons, since
        biases are only ever used in computing the outputs from later
        layers.

        """
        self.biases = [np.random.randn(y, 1) for y in self.sizes[1:]]
        self.weights = [np.random.randn(y, x)/np.sqrt(x)
                        for x, y in zip(self.sizes[:-1], self.sizes[1:])]

    def large_weight_initializer(self):
        """Initialize the weights using a Gaussian distribution with mean 0
        and standard deviation 1.  Initialize the biases using a
        Gaussian distribution with mean 0 and standard deviation 1.

        Note that the first layer is assumed to be an input layer, and
        by convention we won't set any biases for those neurons, since
        biases are only ever used in computing the outputs from later
        layers.

        This weight and bias initializer uses the same approach as in
        Chapter 1, and is included for purposes of comparison.  It
        will usually be better to use the default weight initializer
        instead.

        """
        self.biases = [np.random.randn(y, 1) for y in self.sizes[1:]]
        self.weights = [np.random.randn(y, x)
                        for x, y in zip(self.sizes[:-1], self.sizes[1:])]

    def feedforward(self, a):
        """Return the output of the network if ``a`` is input."""
        for b, w in zip(self.biases, self.weights):
            a = sigmoid(np.dot(w, a)+b)
        return a

    def SGD(self, training_data, epochs, mini_batch_size, eta,
            lmbda = 0.0,
            evaluation_data=None,
            monitor_evaluation_cost=False,
            monitor_evaluation_accuracy=False,
            monitor_training_cost=False,
            monitor_training_accuracy=False):
        """Train the neural network using mini-batch stochastic gradient
        descent.  The ``training_data`` is a list of tuples ``(x, y)``
        representing the training inputs and the desired outputs.  The
        other non-optional parameters are self-explanatory, as is the
        regularization parameter ``lmbda``.  The method also accepts
        ``evaluation_data``, usually either the validation or test
        data.  We can monitor the cost and accuracy on either the
        evaluation data or the training data, by setting the
        appropriate flags.  The method returns a tuple containing four
        lists: the (per-epoch) costs on the evaluation data, the
        accuracies on the evaluation data, the costs on the training
        data, and the accuracies on the training data.  All values are
        evaluated at the end of each training epoch.  So, for example,
        if we train for 30 epochs, then the first element of the tuple
        will be a 30-element list containing the cost on the
        evaluation data at the end of each epoch. Note that the lists
        are empty if the corresponding flag is not set.

        """
        if evaluation_data: n_data = len(evaluation_data)
        n = len(training_data)
        evaluation_cost, evaluation_accuracy = [], []
        training_cost, training_accuracy = [], []
        for j in xrange(epochs):
            random.shuffle(training_data)
            mini_batches = [
                training_data[k:k+mini_batch_size]
                for k in xrange(0, n, mini_batch_size)]
            for mini_batch in mini_batches:
                self.update_mini_batch(
                    mini_batch, eta, lmbda, len(training_data))
            print "Epoch %s training complete" % j
            if monitor_training_cost:
                cost = self.total_cost(training_data, lmbda)
                training_cost.append(cost)
                print "Cost on training data: {}".format(cost)
            if monitor_training_accuracy:
                accuracy = self.accuracy(training_data, convert=True)
                training_accuracy.append(accuracy)
                print "Accuracy on training data: {} / {}".format(
                    accuracy, n)
            if monitor_evaluation_cost:
                cost = self.total_cost(evaluation_data, lmbda, convert=True)
                evaluation_cost.append(cost)
                print "Cost on evaluation data: {}".format(cost)
            if monitor_evaluation_accuracy:
                accuracy = self.accuracy(evaluation_data)
                evaluation_accuracy.append(accuracy)
                print "Accuracy on evaluation data: {} / {}".format(
                    self.accuracy(evaluation_data), n_data)
            print
        return evaluation_cost, evaluation_accuracy, \
            training_cost, training_accuracy

    def update_mini_batch(self, mini_batch, eta, lmbda, n):
        """Update the network's weights and biases by applying gradient
        descent using backpropagation to a single mini batch.  The
        ``mini_batch`` is a list of tuples ``(x, y)``, ``eta`` is the
        learning rate, ``lmbda`` is the regularization parameter, and
        ``n`` is the total size of the training data set.

        """
        nabla_b = [np.zeros(b.shape) for b in self.biases]
        nabla_w = [np.zeros(w.shape) for w in self.weights]
        for x, y in mini_batch:
            delta_nabla_b, delta_nabla_w = self.backprop(x, y)
            nabla_b = [nb+dnb for nb, dnb in zip(nabla_b, delta_nabla_b)]
            nabla_w = [nw+dnw for nw, dnw in zip(nabla_w, delta_nabla_w)]
        self.weights = [(1-eta*(lmbda/n))*w-(eta/len(mini_batch))*nw
                        for w, nw in zip(self.weights, nabla_w)]
        self.biases = [b-(eta/len(mini_batch))*nb
                       for b, nb in zip(self.biases, nabla_b)]

    def backprop(self, x, y):
        """Return a tuple ``(nabla_b, nabla_w)`` representing the
        gradient for the cost function C_x.  ``nabla_b`` and
        ``nabla_w`` are layer-by-layer lists of numpy arrays, similar
        to ``self.biases`` and ``self.weights``."""
        nabla_b = [np.zeros(b.shape) for b in self.biases]
        nabla_w = [np.zeros(w.shape) for w in self.weights]
        # feedforward
        activation = x
        activations = [x] # list to store all the activations, layer by layer
        zs = [] # list to store all the z vectors, layer by layer
        for b, w in zip(self.biases, self.weights):
            z = np.dot(w, activation)+b
            zs.append(z)
            activation = sigmoid(z)
            activations.append(activation)
        # backward pass
        delta = (self.cost).delta(zs[-1], activations[-1], y)
        nabla_b[-1] = delta
        nabla_w[-1] = np.dot(delta, activations[-2].transpose())
        # Note that the variable l in the loop below is used a little
        # differently to the notation in Chapter 2 of the book.  Here,
        # l = 1 means the last layer of neurons, l = 2 is the
        # second-last layer, and so on.  It's a renumbering of the
        # scheme in the book, used here to take advantage of the fact
        # that Python can use negative indices in lists.
        for l in xrange(2, self.num_layers):
            z = zs[-l]
            sp = sigmoid_prime(z)
            delta = np.dot(self.weights[-l+1].transpose(), delta) * sp
            nabla_b[-l] = delta
            nabla_w[-l] = np.dot(delta, activations[-l-1].transpose())
        return (nabla_b, nabla_w)

    def accuracy(self, data, convert=False):
        """Return the number of inputs in ``data`` for which the neural
        network outputs the correct result. The neural network's
        output is assumed to be the index of whichever neuron in the
        final layer has the highest activation.

        The flag ``convert`` should be set to False if the data set is
        validation or test data (the usual case), and to True if the
        data set is the training data. The need for this flag arises
        due to differences in the way the results ``y`` are
        represented in the different data sets.  In particular, it
        flags whether we need to convert between the different
        representations.  It may seem strange to use different
        representations for the different data sets.  Why not use the
        same representation for all three data sets?  It's done for
        efficiency reasons -- the program usually evaluates the cost
        on the training data and the accuracy on other data sets.
        These are different types of computations, and using different
        representations speeds things up.  More details on the
        representations can be found in
        mnist_loader.load_data_wrapper.

        """
        if convert:
            results = [(np.argmax(self.feedforward(x)), np.argmax(y))
                       for (x, y) in data]
        else:
            results = [(np.argmax(self.feedforward(x)), y)
                        for (x, y) in data]
        return sum(int(x == y) for (x, y) in results)

    def total_cost(self, data, lmbda, convert=False):
        """Return the total cost for the data set ``data``.  The flag
        ``convert`` should be set to False if the data set is the
        training data (the usual case), and to True if the data set is
        the validation or test data.  See comments on the similar (but
        reversed) convention for the ``accuracy`` method, above.
        """
        cost = 0.0
        for x, y in data:
            a = self.feedforward(x)
            if convert: y = vectorized_result(y)
            cost += self.cost.fn(a, y)/len(data)
        cost += 0.5*(lmbda/len(data))*sum(
            np.linalg.norm(w)**2 for w in self.weights)
        return cost

    def save(self, filename):
        """Save the neural network to the file ``filename``."""
        data = {"sizes": self.sizes,
                "weights": [w.tolist() for w in self.weights],
                "biases": [b.tolist() for b in self.biases],
                "cost": str(self.cost.__name__)}
        f = open(filename, "w")
        json.dump(data, f)
        f.close()

#### Loading a Network
def load(filename):
    """Load a neural network from the file ``filename``.  Returns an
    instance of Network.

    """
    f = open(filename, "r")
    data = json.load(f)
    f.close()
    cost = getattr(sys.modules[__name__], data["cost"])
    net = Network(data["sizes"], cost=cost)
    net.weights = [np.array(w) for w in data["weights"]]
    net.biases = [np.array(b) for b in data["biases"]]
    return net

#### Miscellaneous functions
def vectorized_result(j):
    """Return a 10-dimensional unit vector with a 1.0 in the j'th position
    and zeroes elsewhere.  This is used to convert a digit (0...9)
    into a corresponding desired output from the neural network.

    """
    e = np.zeros((10, 1))
    e[j] = 1.0
    return e

def sigmoid(z):
    """The sigmoid function."""
    return 1.0/(1.0+np.exp(-z))

def sigmoid_prime(z):
    """Derivative of the sigmoid function."""
    return sigmoid(z)*(1-sigmoid(z))

有个更加有趣的变动就是在代码中增加了 L2 规范化。尽管这是一个主要的概念上的变动，在实现中其实相当简单。对大部分情况，仅仅需要传递参数 lambda 到不同的方法中，主要是 Network.SGD 方法。实际上的工作就是一行代码的事在 Network.update_mini_batch 的倒数第四行。这就是我们改动梯度下降规则来进行权重下降的地方。尽管改动很小，但其对结果影响却很大！

另一个微小却重要的改动是随机梯度下降方法的几个标志位的增加。这些标志位让我们可以对在代价和准确率的监控变得可能。这些标志位默认是 False 的，但是在我们例子中，已经被置为 True 来监控 Network 的性能。另外， network2.py 中的 Network.SGD 方法返回了一个四元组来表示监控的结果。我们可以这样使用：

>>> import mnist_loader
>>> training_data, validation_data, test_data = \
... mnist_loader.load_data_wrapper()
>>> import network2
>>> net = network2.Network([784, 30, 10], cost=network2.CrossEntropyCost)
>>> net.SGD(training_data, 30, 10, 0.5,
... lmbda = 5.0,
... evaluation_data=validation_data,
... monitor_evaluation_accuracy=True,
... monitor_evaluation_cost=True,
... monitor_training_accuracy=True,
... monitor_training_cost=True)

所以，比如 evaluation_cost 将会是一个 30 个元素的列表其中包含了每个epoch{}在验证集合上的代价函数值。这种类型的信息在理解网络行为的过程中特别有用。比如，它可以用来画出展示网络随时间学习的状态。其实，这也是我在前面的章节中展示性能的方式。然而要注意的是如果任何标志位都没有设置的话，对应的元组中的元素就是空列表

另一个增加项就是在 Network.save 方法中的代码，用来将 Network 对象保存在磁盘上，还有一个载回内存的函数。这两个方法都是使用 JSON 进行的，而非 Python 的 pickle 或者 cPickle 模块——这 些通常是 Python 中常见的保存和装载对象的方法。使用 JSON 的原因是，假设在未来某天，我们想改变 Network 类来允许非 sigmoid 的神经元。对这个改变的实现，我 们最可能是改变在 Network.init 方法中定义的属性。如果我们简单地 pickle 对象，会导致 load 函数出错。使用 JSON 进行序列化可以显式地让老的 Network 仍然能够 load。

其他也还有一些微小的变动。但是那些只是 network.py 的微调。结果就是把程序从 74 行增长到了 152 行。