CS231n Module 0

Python / Numpy Tutorial

Python

这里介绍了python，并举了一个快排的例子，这个快排写的挺好看的。

def quicksort(arr):
    if len(arr) <= 1:
        return arr
    pivot = arr[len(arr) / 2]
    left = [x for x in arr if x < pivot]
    middle = [x for x in arr if x == pivot]
    right = [x for x in arr if x > pivot]
    return quicksort(left) + middle + quicksort(right)

print quicksort([3,6,8,10,1,2,1])
# Prints "[1, 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 10]"

Basic data types

介绍了python中的基本运算操作和变量。
有关int和浮点型的运算：

x = 3
print type(x) # Prints "<type 'int'>"
print x       # Prints "3"
print x + 1   # Addition; prints "4"
print x - 1   # Subtraction; prints "2"
print x * 2   # Multiplication; prints "6"
print x ** 2  # Exponentiation; prints "9"
x += 1
print x  # Prints "4"
x *= 2
print x  # Prints "8"
y = 2.5
print type(y) # Prints "<type 'float'>"
print y, y + 1, y * 2, y ** 2 # Prints "2.5 3.5 5.0 6.25"

boolean型：

t = True
f = False
print type(t) # Prints "<type 'bool'>"
print t and f # Logical AND; prints "False"
print t or f  # Logical OR; prints "True"
print not t   # Logical NOT; prints "False"
print t != f  # Logical XOR; prints "True" 

string型：

hello = 'hello'   # String literals can use single quotes
world = "world"   # or double quotes; it does not matter.
print hello       # Prints "hello"
print len(hello)  # String length; prints "5"
hw = hello + ' ' + world  # String concatenation
print hw  # prints "hello world"
hw12 = '%s %s %d' % (hello, world, 12)  # sprintf style string formatting
print hw12  # prints "hello world 12"

s = "hello"
print s.capitalize()  # Capitalize a string; prints "Hello"
print s.upper()       # Convert a string to uppercase; prints "HELLO"
print s.rjust(7)      # Right-justify a string, padding with spaces; prints "  hello"
print s.center(7)     # Center a string, padding with spaces; prints " hello "
print s.replace('l', '(ell)')  # Replace all instances of one substring with another;
                               # prints "he(ell)(ell)o"
print '  world '.strip()  # Strip leading and trailing whitespace; prints "world"

容器(containers)：
首先是Lists：

xs = [3, 1, 2]   # Create a list
print xs, xs[2]  # Prints "[3, 1, 2] 2"
print xs[-1]     # Negative indices count from the end of the list; prints "2"
xs[2] = 'foo'    # Lists can contain elements of different types
print xs         # Prints "[3, 1, 'foo']"
xs.append('bar') # Add a new element to the end of the list
print xs         # Prints "[3, 1, 'foo', 'bar']"
x = xs.pop()     # Remove and return the last element of the list
print x, xs      # Prints "bar [3, 1, 'foo']"

nums = range(5)    # range is a built-in function that creates a list of integers
print nums         # Prints "[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]"
print nums[2:4]    # Get a slice from index 2 to 4 (exclusive); prints "[2, 3]"
print nums[2:]     # Get a slice from index 2 to the end; prints "[2, 3, 4]"
print nums[:2]     # Get a slice from the start to index 2 (exclusive); prints "[0, 1]"
print nums[:]      # Get a slice of the whole list; prints ["0, 1, 2, 3, 4]"
print nums[:-1]    # Slice indices can be negative; prints ["0, 1, 2, 3]"
nums[2:4] = [8, 9] # Assign a new sublist to a slice
print nums         # Prints "[0, 1, 8, 9, 4]"

animals = ['cat', 'dog', 'monkey']
for animal in animals:
    print animal
# Prints "cat", "dog", "monkey", each on its own line.

animals = ['cat', 'dog', 'monkey']
for idx, animal in enumerate(animals):
    print '#%d: %s' % (idx + 1, animal)
# Prints "#1: cat", "#2: dog", "#3: monkey", each on its own line

nums = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
squares = []
for x in nums:
    squares.append(x ** 2)
print squares   # Prints [0, 1, 4, 9, 16]

nums = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
squares = [x ** 2 for x in nums]
print squares   # Prints [0, 1, 4, 9, 16]


nums = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
even_squares = [x ** 2 for x in nums if x % 2 == 0]
print even_squares  # Prints "[0, 4, 16]"

其二是Dictionaries：

d = {'cat': 'cute', 'dog': 'furry'}  # Create a new dictionary with some data
print d['cat']       # Get an entry from a dictionary; prints "cute"
print 'cat' in d     # Check if a dictionary has a given key; prints "True"
d['fish'] = 'wet'    # Set an entry in a dictionary
print d['fish']      # Prints "wet"
# print d['monkey']  # KeyError: 'monkey' not a key of d
print d.get('monkey', 'N/A')  # Get an element with a default; prints "N/A"
print d.get('fish', 'N/A')    # Get an element with a default; prints "wet"
del d['fish']        # Remove an element from a dictionary
print d.get('fish', 'N/A') # "fish" is no longer a key; prints "N/A"

d = {'person': 2, 'cat': 4, 'spider': 8}
for animal in d:
    legs = d[animal]
    print 'A %s has %d legs' % (animal, legs)
# Prints "A person has 2 legs", "A spider has 8 legs", "A cat has 4 legs"

d = {'person': 2, 'cat': 4, 'spider': 8}
for animal, legs in d.iteritems():
    print 'A %s has %d legs' % (animal, legs)
# Prints "A person has 2 legs", "A spider has 8 legs", "A cat has 4 legs"

nums = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
even_num_to_square = {x: x ** 2 for x in nums if x % 2 == 0}
print even_num_to_square  # Prints "{0: 0, 2: 4, 4: 16}"

第三个是Sets：

animals = {'cat', 'dog'}
print 'cat' in animals   # Check if an element is in a set; prints "True"
print 'fish' in animals  # prints "False"
animals.add('fish')      # Add an element to a set
print 'fish' in animals  # Prints "True"
print len(animals)       # Number of elements in a set; prints "3"
animals.add('cat')       # Adding an element that is already in the set does nothing
print len(animals)       # Prints "3"
animals.remove('cat')    # Remove an element from a set
print len(animals)       # Prints "2"

animals = {'cat', 'dog', 'fish'}
for idx, animal in enumerate(animals):
    print '#%d: %s' % (idx + 1, animal)
# Prints "#1: fish", "#2: dog", "#3: cat"

from math import sqrt
nums = {int(sqrt(x)) for x in range(30)}
print nums  # Prints "set([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5])"

最后是Tuples：
它与list很像，但他可以作为dictionaries的keys使用，可以作为sets的成员，而lists不能。

d = {(x, x + 1): x for x in range(10)}  # Create a dictionary with tuple keys
t = (5, 6)       # Create a tuple
print type(t)    # Prints "<type 'tuple'>"
print d[t]       # Prints "5"
print d[(1, 2)]  # Prints "1"

Functions

def来定义函数。

def sign(x):
    if x > 0:
        return 'positive'
    elif x < 0:
        return 'negative'
    else:
        return 'zero'

for x in [-1, 0, 1]:
    print sign(x)
# Prints "negative", "zero", "positive"

缺省的用法：

def hello(name, loud=False):
    if loud:
        print 'HELLO, %s!' % name.upper()
    else:
        print 'Hello, %s' % name

hello('Bob') # Prints "Hello, Bob"
hello('Fred', loud=True)  # Prints "HELLO, FRED!"

Classes

类的定义也很简单：

class Greeter(object):

    # Constructor
    def __init__(self, name):
        self.name = name  # Create an instance variable

    # Instance method
    def greet(self, loud=False):
        if loud:
            print 'HELLO, %s!' % self.name.upper()
        else:
            print 'Hello, %s' % self.name

g = Greeter('Fred')  # Construct an instance of the Greeter class
g.greet()            # Call an instance method; prints "Hello, Fred"
g.greet(loud=True)   # Call an instance method; prints "HELLO, FRED!"

Numpy

Numpy是Python中科学计算的核心库。

Arrays

看例子很好理解：
直接初始化：

import numpy as np
a = np.array([1, 2, 3])  # Create a rank 1 array
print type(a)            # Prints "<type 'numpy.ndarray'>"
print a.shape            # Prints "(3,)"
print a[0], a[1], a[2]   # Prints "1 2 3"
a[0] = 5                 # Change an element of the array
print a                  # Prints "[5, 2, 3]"

b = np.array([[1,2,3],[4,5,6]])   # Create a rank 2 array
print b.shape                     # Prints "(2, 3)"
print b[0, 0], b[0, 1], b[1, 0]   # Prints "1 2 4"

使用函数来初始化：

import numpy as np

a = np.zeros((2,2))  # Create an array of all zeros
print a              # Prints "[[ 0.  0.]
                     #          [ 0.  0.]]"

b = np.ones((1,2))   # Create an array of all ones
print b              # Prints "[[ 1.  1.]]"

c = np.full((2,2), 7) # Create a constant array
print c               # Prints "[[ 7.  7.]
                      #          [ 7.  7.]]"

d = np.eye(2)        # Create a 2x2 identity matrix
print d              # Prints "[[ 1.  0.]
                     #          [ 0.  1.]]"

e = np.random.random((2,2)) # Create an array filled with random values
print e                     # Might print "[[ 0.91940167  0.08143941]
                            #               [ 0.68744134  0.87236687]]"

slicing：
要注意的是，slicing完了之后的存储与原变量是同地址的，比如下面例子中的变量b：

import numpy as np

# Create the following rank 2 array with shape (3, 4)
# [[ 1  2  3  4]
#  [ 5  6  7  8]
#  [ 9 10 11 12]]
a = np.array([[1,2,3,4], [5,6,7,8], [9,10,11,12]])

# Use slicing to pull out the subarray consisting of the first 2 rows
# and columns 1 and 2; b is the following array of shape (2, 2):
# [[2 3]
#  [6 7]]
b = a[:2, 1:3]

# A slice of an array is a view into the same data, so modifying it
# will modify the original array.
print a[0, 1]   # Prints "2"
b[0, 0] = 77    # b[0, 0] is the same piece of data as a[0, 1]
print a[0, 1]   # Prints "77"

下面这个点十分值得注意，用slice和index访问会造成不同的后果，这点与matlab中并不一样，用index直接访问会降维，slice不会：

import numpy as np

# Create the following rank 2 array with shape (3, 4)
# [[ 1  2  3  4]
#  [ 5  6  7  8]
#  [ 9 10 11 12]]
a = np.array([[1,2,3,4], [5,6,7,8], [9,10,11,12]])

# Two ways of accessing the data in the middle row of the array.
# Mixing integer indexing with slices yields an array of lower rank,
# while using only slices yields an array of the same rank as the
# original array:
row_r1 = a[1, :]    # Rank 1 view of the second row of a  
row_r2 = a[1:2, :]  # Rank 2 view of the second row of a
print row_r1, row_r1.shape  # Prints "[5 6 7 8] (4,)"
print row_r2, row_r2.shape  # Prints "[[5 6 7 8]] (1, 4)"

# We can make the same distinction when accessing columns of an array:
col_r1 = a[:, 1]
col_r2 = a[:, 1:2]
print col_r1, col_r1.shape  # Prints "[ 2  6 10] (3,)"
print col_r2, col_r2.shape  # Prints "[[ 2]
                            #          [ 6]
                            #          [10]] (3, 1)"

int型的访问方法：
可以组成一对坐标来访问矩阵，比如下面例子中的a[[0, 1, 2], [0, 1, 0]]，就表示访问坐标(0,0),(1,1),(2,0)元素：

import numpy as np

a = np.array([[1,2], [3, 4], [5, 6]])

# An example of integer array indexing.
# The returned array will have shape (3,) and 
print a[[0, 1, 2], [0, 1, 0]]  # Prints "[1 4 5]"

# The above example of integer array indexing is equivalent to this:
print np.array([a[0, 0], a[1, 1], a[2, 0]])  # Prints "[1 4 5]"

# When using integer array indexing, you can reuse the same
# element from the source array:
print a[[0, 0], [1, 1]]  # Prints "[2 2]"

# Equivalent to the previous integer array indexing example
print np.array([a[0, 1], a[0, 1]])  # Prints "[2 2]"

用array方法来访问：

import numpy as np

# Create a new array from which we will select elements
a = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9], [10, 11, 12]])

print a  # prints "array([[ 1,  2,  3],
         #                [ 4,  5,  6],
         #                [ 7,  8,  9],
         #                [10, 11, 12]])"

# Create an array of indices
b = np.array([0, 2, 0, 1])

# Select one element from each row of a using the indices in b
print a[np.arange(4), b]  # Prints "[ 1  6  7 11]"

# Mutate one element from each row of a using the indices in b
a[np.arange(4), b] += 10

print a  # prints "array([[11,  2,  3],
         #                [ 4,  5, 16],
         #                [17,  8,  9],
         #                [10, 21, 12]])

用bool型来访问满足特定条件的元素：

import numpy as np

a = np.array([[1,2], [3, 4], [5, 6]])

bool_idx = (a > 2)  # Find the elements of a that are bigger than 2;
                    # this returns a numpy array of Booleans of the same
                    # shape as a, where each slot of bool_idx tells
                    # whether that element of a is > 2.

print bool_idx      # Prints "[[False False]
                    #          [ True  True]
                    #          [ True  True]]"

# We use boolean array indexing to construct a rank 1 array
# consisting of the elements of a corresponding to the True values
# of bool_idx
print a[bool_idx]  # Prints "[3 4 5 6]"

# We can do all of the above in a single concise statement:
print a[a > 2]     # Prints "[3 4 5 6]"

np.array可以判断类型：

import numpy as np

x = np.array([1, 2])  # Let numpy choose the datatype
print x.dtype         # Prints "int64"

x = np.array([1.0, 2.0])  # Let numpy choose the datatype
print x.dtype             # Prints "float64"

x = np.array([1, 2], dtype=np.int64)  # Force a particular datatype
print x.dtype                         # Prints "int64"

array数学运算：
与matlab有区别的是，*在python中为elementwise的乘法，而在matlab中是矩阵乘法。

import numpy as np

x = np.array([[1,2],[3,4]], dtype=np.float64)
y = np.array([[5,6],[7,8]], dtype=np.float64)

# Elementwise sum; both produce the array
# [[ 6.0  8.0]
#  [10.0 12.0]]
print x + y
print np.add(x, y)

# Elementwise difference; both produce the array
# [[-4.0 -4.0]
#  [-4.0 -4.0]]
print x - y
print np.subtract(x, y)

# Elementwise product; both produce the array
# [[ 5.0 12.0]
#  [21.0 32.0]]
print x * y
print np.multiply(x, y)

# Elementwise division; both produce the array
# [[ 0.2         0.33333333]
#  [ 0.42857143  0.5       ]]
print x / y
print np.divide(x, y)

# Elementwise square root; produces the array
# [[ 1.          1.41421356]
#  [ 1.73205081  2.        ]]
print np.sqrt(x)

dot为numpy中的矩阵乘法，若为两个向量相乘，则为求点积：

import numpy as np

x = np.array([[1,2],[3,4]])
y = np.array([[5,6],[7,8]])

v = np.array([9,10])
w = np.array([11, 12])

# Inner product of vectors; both produce 219
print v.dot(w)
print np.dot(v, w)

# Matrix / vector product; both produce the rank 1 array [29 67]
print x.dot(v)
print np.dot(x, v)

# Matrix / matrix product; both produce the rank 2 array
# [[19 22]
#  [43 50]]
print x.dot(y)
print np.dot(x, y)

转置：

import numpy as np

x = np.array([[1,2], [3,4]])
print x    # Prints "[[1 2]
           #          [3 4]]"
print x.T  # Prints "[[1 3]
           #          [2 4]]"

# Note that taking the transpose of a rank 1 array does nothing:
v = np.array([1,2,3])
print v    # Prints "[1 2 3]"
print v.T  # Prints "[1 2 3]"

给每行加上一个向量：

import numpy as np

# We will add the vector v to each row of the matrix x,
# storing the result in the matrix y
x = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9], [10, 11, 12]])
v = np.array([1, 0, 1])
y = np.empty_like(x)   # Create an empty matrix with the same shape as x

# Add the vector v to each row of the matrix x with an explicit loop
for i in range(4):
    y[i, :] = x[i, :] + v

# Now y is the following
# [[ 2  2  4]
#  [ 5  5  7]
#  [ 8  8 10]
#  [11 11 13]]
print y

上面程序的代码在x非常大的时候跑循环很浪费时间，可以有如下优化：

import numpy as np

# We will add the vector v to each row of the matrix x,
# storing the result in the matrix y
x = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9], [10, 11, 12]])
v = np.array([1, 0, 1])
vv = np.tile(v, (4, 1))  # Stack 4 copies of v on top of each other
print vv                 # Prints "[[1 0 1]
                         #          [1 0 1]
                         #          [1 0 1]
                         #          [1 0 1]]"
y = x + vv  # Add x and vv elementwise
print y  # Prints "[[ 2  2  4
         #          [ 5  5  7]
         #          [ 8  8 10]
         #          [11 11 13]]"

由于broadcasting的特性，上述程序完全可以写为：

import numpy as np

# We will add the vector v to each row of the matrix x,
# storing the result in the matrix y
x = np.array([[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9], [10, 11, 12]])
v = np.array([1, 0, 1])
y = x + v  # Add v to each row of x using broadcasting
print y  # Prints "[[ 2  2  4]
         #          [ 5  5  7]
         #          [ 8  8 10]
         #          [11 11 13]]"

SciPy

SciPy提供了基本的图像操作，官方文档为：http://docs.scipy.org/doc/scipy/reference/index.html

Matplotlib

plot图像：

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Compute the x and y coordinates for points on a sine curve
x = np.arange(0, 3 * np.pi, 0.1)
y = np.sin(x)

# Plot the points using matplotlib
plt.plot(x, y)
plt.show()  # You must call plt.show() to make graphics appear.

#################
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Compute the x and y coordinates for points on sine and cosine curves
x = np.arange(0, 3 * np.pi, 0.1)
y_sin = np.sin(x)
y_cos = np.cos(x)

# Plot the points using matplotlib
plt.plot(x, y_sin)
plt.plot(x, y_cos)
plt.xlabel('x axis label')
plt.ylabel('y axis label')
plt.title('Sine and Cosine')
plt.legend(['Sine', 'Cosine'])
plt.show()

#subplots
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Compute the x and y coordinates for points on sine and cosine curves
x = np.arange(0, 3 * np.pi, 0.1)
y_sin = np.sin(x)
y_cos = np.cos(x)

# Set up a subplot grid that has height 2 and width 1,
# and set the first such subplot as active.
plt.subplot(2, 1, 1)

# Make the first plot
plt.plot(x, y_sin)
plt.title('Sine')

# Set the second subplot as active, and make the second plot.
plt.subplot(2, 1, 2)
plt.plot(x, y_cos)
plt.title('Cosine')

# Show the figure.
plt.show()

Ipython Notebook

这里介绍了Ipython Notebook，这个东西还挺好用的。能在网页上直接运行python。

Terminal.com

这个网页好像能在网页上直接打开一个终端来使用，但是好像被墙了。404。

AWS

简要介绍了一下AWS，听说目前大多数实验室都用这个来跑DL。不知道我将要去的实验室是怎么安排的，由此可以考虑新机器的配置。