[ TOP2 - P1 ]
Even in the areas that retain a soil cover, the reduction of vegetation typically results in the loss of the soil's ability to absorb substantial quantities of water. The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration. Water absorption is greatly reduced; consequently runoff is increased, resulting in accelerated erosion rates. The gradual drying of the soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb water results in the further loss of vegetation, so that a cycle of progressive surface deterioration is established.
retain vt. 保持;保留;持有;继续拥有;继续容纳;聘请(律师等)
Even adv. 即使;(强调出乎意料)甚至;连;
typically adv. 典型的;通常;一般;典型地;具有代表性地;不出所料;果然
substantial adj. 大量的;价值巨大的;重大的;大而坚固的;结实的;牢固的
According to paragraph 3, the loss of natural vegetation has which of the following consequences for soil?
A. Increased stony content
B. Reduced water absorption
C. Increased numbers of spaces in the soil
D. Reduced water runoff
There is little doubt, however, that desertification in most areas results primarily from human activities rather than natural processes. The semiarid lands bordering the deserts exist in a delicate ecological balance and are limited in their potential to adjust to increased environmental pressures. Expanding populations are subjecting the land to increasing pressures to provide them with food and fuel. In wet periods, the land may be able to respond to these stresses. During the dry periods that are common phenomena along the desert margins, though, the pressure on the land is often far in excess of its diminished capacity, and desertification results.
border n. 边境;边界;边疆;国界;边界地区;
rather than 而不是;而不
semiarid 半干旱;半干旱性;半干燥的
bordering v. 和…毗邻;与…接壤;沿…的边;环绕…;给…镶边
adjust v. 调整;调节;适应;习惯;整理
expanding v. 扩大，增加，增强(尺码、数量或重要性);扩展，发展
subjecting v. 使臣服;使顺从;(尤指)压服 subject的现在分词
common adj. 常见的;通常的;普遍的;
margin n. 边缘;页边空白;白边;
excess n. 过量的;过度;超过;过分;
settlement n.解决;处理;(关于钱财转让的)协议(书);支付，偿付，结算;定居点;移民
According to paragraph 5, in dry periods, border areas have difficulty
A. Adjusting to stresses created by settlement
B. Retaining their fertility after desertification
C. Providing water for irrigating crops
D. Attracting populations in search of food and fuel
Four specific activities have been identified as major contributors to the desertification processes: overcultivation, overgrazing, firewood gathering, and overirrigation. The cultivation of crops has expanded into progressively drier regions as population densities have grown. These regions are especially likely to have periods of severe dryness, so that crop failures are common. Since the raising of most crops necessitates the prior removal of the natural vegetation, crop failures leave extensive tracts of land devoid of a plant cover and susceptible to wind and water erosion.
raising crops 种植农作物
irrigation n. 灌溉;水利;[医]冲洗
particular adj. 专指的，特指的(与泛指相对);不寻常的;
removal n. 移动;调动;去除;除去;消除;清除;免职;解职;搬迁
original adj. 起初的;原来的;最早的;首创的;
vegetation n. 植被;(统称)植物;(尤指某地或环境的)植物群落;草木
excessive adj. 过分的;过度的
waste 粪便
overgrazing n. 过度放牧 overgraze的现在分词
expanded v. 扩大，增加，增强 adj. 膨胀的；被扩大的展开的 expand的过去分词和过去式
progressively adv. 持续稳定地;逐步地;愈益
drier adj. 干燥的;干的;雨少的;干旱的;干性的;无水分的 dry的比较级
especially adv. 尤其地;尤其;特别;格外;专门;特地;十分;非常
tract n. 大片土地;
devoid adj. 缺乏;完全没有
susceptible adj. 易受影响(或伤害等);敏感;过敏;
According to paragraph 6, which of the following is often associated with raising crops?
A. Lack of proper irrigation techniques
B. Failure to plant crops suited to the particular area
C. Removal of the original vegetation
D. Excessive use of dried animal waste
The final major human cause of desertification is soil salinization resulting from overirrigation. Excess water from irrigation sinks down into the water table. If no drainage system exists, the water table rises, bringing dissolved salts to the surface. The water evaporates and the salts are left behind, creating a white crustal layer that prevents air and water from reaching the underlying soil.
salinization 盐碱化;土壤盐渍化;盐化;盐化作用
water table n. 地下水位
crustal adj. 地壳的;地壳的，（尤指）地球或月球外壳的
According to paragraph 9, the ground’s absorption of excess water is a factor in desertification because it can
A. Interfere with the irrigation of land
B. Limit the evaporation of water
C. Require more absorption of air by the soil
D. Bring salts to the surface
[ TPO3 - C1 ]
NARRATOR
Listen to a conversation between a student and a receptionist at the Registrar's Office on the first day of the semester.
FEMALE STUDENT
Excuse me, I'm supposed to be having my physics class in the science building, but no one's in the classroom.
Could you tell me where the class is? Physics 403 - has it been moved?
MALE RECEPTIONIST
[suggesting] Well, there's a room assignment sheet on the bulletin board outside this office, …
FEMALE STUDENT
Yeah, I know, but my class isn't listed there. There must be some kinda mistake or something . Could you look it up, please?
MALE RECEPTIONIST
Hmmm... ok, let me check on the computer. It's physics, right? [pause] Wait, did you say Physics 403?
FEMALE STUDENT
Yeah.
MALE RECEPTIONIST
Er... I'm sorry, but it says here that it was cancelled. You should have gotten a letter from the registrar's office about this.
FEMALE STUDENT
What? I've never got it.
MALE RECEPTIONIST
[skeptical] Are you sure? Cuz it says on the computer that the letter was sent out to students a week ago.
FEMALE STUDENT
Really? I should have gotten it by now. I wonder if I threw it away with all the junk mail by mistake.
MALE RECEPTIONIST
[chuckle] Well, it does happen.... Er... let me check something. What's your name?
FEMALE STUDENT
Woodhouse, Laura Woodhouse.
MALE RECEPTIONIST
Ok, hmmm... Woodhouse, let me see... ah, it says here we sent it to your apartment on er... Center Street.
FEMALE STUDENT
Oh, that's my old apartment. I moved out of there a little while ago… [connected with following line for MALE PROFESSOR].
MALE RECEPTIONIST
Well, and I suppose you haven't changed your mailing address at the administration office. Well, that would explain it.
FEMALE STUDENT
[sigh] Yeah, I guess that's it. But how can they cancel the class after offering it? If I'd known this was gonna happen, I would have taken it last semester.
MALE RECEPTIONIST
I know, it's really inconvenient for you, I understand that, but un… if we don't have enough students signed up for the course, the college can't offer it, you know, it's um, a practical issue, like, we can't have an instructor when there’re only a few students in the class.
You see what I mean?
FEMALE STUDENT
I guess, but now I don't know what course I should take instead.
MALE RECEPTIONIST
Ok, let's see. Do you have any courses you're gonna take next semester?
If you do, you might want to take them now and sign up for physics 403 next semester.
FEMALE STUDENT
Yeah, I guess I could do that. I just hope it won't be cancelled again.
Do you know how many people have to be enrolled in order to keep a class from being cancelled?
MALE RECEPTIONIST
Well, it depends on the class, but for that class, you have to have er... let's see, usually it'd be at least ten people, but since it was cancelled this semester, they might even do it with less.
But do you know what you should do?
Give the physics department a call a couple of weeks before the semester starts. They'll be able to tell you if they're planning to go through with it.It's their decision, actually.
FEMALE STUDENT
Oh, ok, I will do that. Thanks for the info.
MALE RECEPTIONIST
No problem. Sorry about the class… [pause] Oh, why don't you go change your mailing address now. It'll only take a minute.
FEMALE STUDENT
Oh, oh, sure, I will do that right away.
receptionist n. 接待员
registrar n. 登记员;户籍管理员;(大学的)教务长，教务主任
supposed v. (根据所知)认为，推断，料想;假定;假设; suppose的过去分词和过去式
threw v. 投;掷;抛;扔;摔;丢;猛推;使劲撞 throw的过去式
junk n. 废旧物品;无用的东西;无价值的东西;中国式帆船
practical adj. 实际的;真实的;客观存在的;切实可行的;
go through 经过某过程;经历，经受;翻阅，翻找，整理;通读，彻查;
Why does the women come to the office?
A. To notify the university of her change of address
B. To find out where her physics class is being held
C. To get directions to the science building
D. To complain about her physics class being canceled
What happened to the letter the university sent to the woman?
A. She threw it away by mistake
B. Her roommate forgot to give it to her
C. It was sent to her old mailing address
D. It was sent to another student by mistake
Why was the woman’s physics class canceled?
A. Not enough students signed up to take the class
B. No professors were available to teach the class
C. The university changed its requirements for physics students
D. There were no classrooms available in the science building at the hour
What does the man suggest the woman do before the beginning of next semester?
A. Consult with her advisor about her class schedule
B. Check with the registrar’s office about the location of the class
C. Register for her classes early
D. Call the physics department
What does the man imply when he say this:
A. He know the physics class has been canceled
B. He is not sure where the science building is
C. Many of the room assignments have been changed
D. The women can check for herself where her class is
[ TOP5 - P3 ]
Scientists have asked important questions about this explosion for more than a century. Why did it occur so late in the history of Earth? The origin of multicellular forms of life seems a relatively simple step compared to the origin of life itself. Why does the fossil record not document the series of evolutionary changes during the evolution of animals? Why did animal life evolve so quickly? Paleontologists continue to search the fossil record for answers to these questions.
explosion n. 爆炸;爆破;爆裂(声);突增;激增;(感情，尤指愤怒的)突然爆发，迸发
multicellular adj. 多细胞的;多室的；多孔的；多管的；多单元的
According to Paragraph 2, which of the following is NOT a question that paleontologists asked about the Cambrian explosion?
A. Why was the origin of life a simple step in Earth’s history?
B. Why did it take so long for multicellular organisms to develop?
C. Why did animal life evolve so rapidly?
D. Why does the fossil record lack evidence of animal evolution during that time?
conditions that favored fossilization. These fossil beds provide evidence of about 32 modern animal groups, plus about 20 other animal body forms that are so different from any modern animals that they cannot be assigned to any one of the modern groups. These unassignable animals include a large swimming predator called Anomalocaris and a soft-bodied animal called Wiwaxia, which ate detritus or algae. The Burgess Shale formation also has fossils of many extinct representatives of modern animal groups. For example, a well-known Burgess Shale animal called Sidneyia is a representative of a previously unknown group of arthropods (a category of animals that includes insects, spiders, mites, and crabs).
fossilization n. 石化；僵化
plus prep. 加;和;也;外加
ate v. 吃;吃饭;用餐 eat的过去式
detritus n. 风化物;残渣;腐殖质;瓦砾;碎石;垃圾;废物
algae n. 藻类;藻;海藻 alga的复数
shale n. 页岩
extinct adj. 灭绝的;绝迹的;绝种的;不再存在的;消亡了的;废除了的;不再活跃的;死的
arthropod n. 节肢动物 adj. 节肢动物的
mite n. 螨（状似蜘蛛的微小动物，在动植
"Sidneyia" is an example of
A. a relative of Anomalocaris and Wiwaxia
B. a previously unknown Burgess Shale animal
C. an extinct member of a currently existing category of animals
D. an animal that cannot be assigned to any modern animal group
Fossil formations like the Burgess Shale show that evolution cannot always be thought of as a slow progression. The Cambrian explosion involved rapid evolutionary diversification, followed by the extinction of many unique animals. Why was this evolution so rapid? No one really knows. Many zoologists believe that it was because so many ecological niches were available with virtually no competition from existing species. Will zoologists ever know the evolutionary sequences in the Cambrian explosion? Perhaps another ancient fossil bed of soft-bodied animals from 600-million-year-old seas is awaiting discovery.
generated v. 产生;引起 generate的过去分词和过去式
through adv. 通过;从一端到另一端;自始至终;从头至尾;直达;（电话）接通着; 完全，彻底
thought v. 认为;以为;想;思考;思索;思想;琢磨 think的过去分词和过去式
sequence n. 序列;顺序;次序;一系列;一连串
clearly adv. 清晰地;清楚地;明显地;明白地;易懂地;显然地
marked adj. 明显的;显著的;有标记成分的(如正式或非正式用语) mark的过去分词和过去式
What can be inferred from paragraph 7 about why the Cambrian explosion is so unusual?
A. It generated new ecological niches through the extinction of many unique animals.
B. It was a period of rapid evolution, and evolution is often thought of as a slow process.
C. It is a period whose evolutionary sequences are clearly marked.
D. It generated a very large number of ancient fossil beds containing soft-bodied animals.
One interpretation regarding the absence of fossils during this important 100-million-year period is that early animals were soft bodied and simply did not fossilize. [ ] Fossilization of soft-bodied animals is less likely than fossilization of hard-bodied animals, but it does occur. [ ] Conditions that promote fossilization of soft-bodied animals include very rapid covering by sediments that create an environment that discourages decomposition. [ ] In fact, fossil beds containing soft-bodied animals have been known for many years. [ ]
absence n. 缺席;不在;不存在;缺乏
likely adj. 可能的;预料的;有希望的;似乎合适的;仿佛恰当的
rapid adj. 迅速的;快速的;瞬间的;短时间内发生的;快捷的
sediment n. 沉淀物;沉积物
discourage vt. 阻拦;阻止;劝阻;使灰心;使泄气;使丧失信心
Look at the four squares [ ] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where could the sentence best fit?
It is relatively rare because the fossilization of soft-bodied animals requires a special environment.
[ TOP7 - P3 ]
The word "diffused" in the passage is closest in meaning to
A. emerged
B. was understood
C. spread
D. developed
diffused v. 传播;普及;使分散;散布;
spread v. 传播;展开;打开;摊开;
There is evidence of agriculture in Africa prior to 3000 B.C. It may have developed independently, but many scholars believe that the spread of agriculture and iron throughout Africa linked it to the major centers of the Near East and Mediterranean world. The drying up of what is now the Sahara desert had pushed many peoples to the south into sub-Sahara Africa. These peoples settled at first in scattered hunting-and-gathering bands, although in some places near lakes and rivers, people who fished, with a more secure food supply, lived in larger population concentrations. Agriculture seems to have reached these people from the Near East, since the first domesticated crops were millets and sorghums whose origins are not African but west Asian. Once the idea of planting diffused, Africans began to develop their own crops, such as certain varieties of rice, and they demonstrated a continued receptiveness to new imports. The proposed areas of the domestication of African crops lie in a band that extends from Ethiopia across southern Sudan to West Africa. Subsequently, other crops, such as bananas, were introduced from Southeast Asia.
since conj. 因为，由于;既然;从…以后
domesticated v. 驯养，驯化(动物);驯化，培育
sorghum n. 高粱;高粱米
According to paragraph 1, why do researchers doubt that agriculture developed independently in Africa?
A. African lakes and rivers already provided enough food for people to survive without agriculture.
B. The earliest examples of cultivated plants discovered in Africa are native to Asia.
C. Africa’s native plants are very difficult to domesticate.
D. African communities were not large enough to support agriculture.
Iron came from West Asia, although its routes of diffusion were somewhat different than those of agriculture. Most of Africa presents a curious case in which societies moved directly from a technology of stone to iron without passing through the intermediate stage of copper or bronze metallurgy, although some early copper-working sites have been found in West Africa. Knowledge of iron making penetrated into the forest and savannahs of West Africa at roughly the same time that iron making was reaching Europe. Evidence of iron making has been found in Nigeria, Ghana, and Mali.
copper n. 铜;铜币;警察 adj. 铜(制)的;(紫)铜色的
diffusion n. 扩散;漫射;传播
curious adj. 好奇的;求知欲强的;稀奇古怪;奇特;不寻常
case n. 案例;实例;具体情况;事例;实情
societies n. 社会(共同遵守一定的习俗、法律等的特定群体);社团;协会;学会 society的复数
bronze n. 青铜;深红褐色;青铜色;青铜艺术品
metallurgy n. 冶金学
savannah n. (尤指非洲的)稀树草原
What function does paragraph 3 serve in the organization of the passage as a whole?
A. It contrasts the development of iron technology in West Asia and West Africa.
B. It discusses a non-agricultural contribution to Africa from Asia.
C. It introduces evidence that a knowledge of copper working reached Africa and Europe at the same time.
D. It compares the rates at which iron technology developed in different parts of Africa
This technological shift cause profound changes in the complexity of African societies. Iron represented power. In West Africa the blacksmith who made tools and weapons had an important place in society, often with special religious powers and functions. Iron hoes, which made the land more productive, and iron weapons, which made the warrior more powerful, had symbolic meaning in a number of West Africa societies. Those who knew the secrets of making iron gained ritual and sometimes political power.
access vt. 访问，存取(计算机文件);到达;进入
According to paragraph 4, all of the following were social effects of the new metal technology in Africa EXCEPT:
A. Access to metal tools and weapons created greater social equality.
B. Metal weapons increased the power of warriors.
C. Iron tools helped increase the food supply.
D. Technical knowledge gave religious power to its holders.
Unlike in the Americas, where metallurgy was a very late and limited development, Africans had iron from a relatively early date, developing ingenious furnaces to produce the high heat needed for production and to control the amount of air that reached the carbon and iron ore necessary for making iron. Much of Africa moved right into the Iron Age, taking the basic technology and adapting it to local conditions and resources.
ingenious adj. 精巧的;新颖独特的;巧妙的;心灵手巧的;机敏的;善于创造发明的
furnace n. 熔炉
heat n. 热;温度;炎热天气;
ore n. 矿石;矿;矿砂
Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
A. While American iron makers developed the latest furnaces, African iron makers continued using earlier techniques.
B. Africans produced iron much earlier than Americans, inventing technologically sophisticated heating systems.
C. Iron making developed earlier in Africa than in the Americas because of the ready availability of carbon and iron ore.
D. Both Africa and the Americas developed the capacity for making iron early, but African metallurgy developed at a slower rate.
The diffusion of agriculture and later of iron was accompanied by a great movement of people who may have carried these innovations. These people probably originated in eastern Nigeria. Their migration may have been set in motion by an increase in population caused by a movement of peoples fleeing the desiccation, or drying up, of the Sahara. They spoke a language, proto-Bantu ("Bantu" means "the people"), which is the parent tongue of a language of a large number of Bantu languages still spoken throughout sub-Sahara Africa. Why and how these people spread out into central and southern Africa remains a mystery, but archaeologists believe that their iron weapons allowed them to conquer their hunting-gathering opponents, who still used stone implements. Still, the process is uncertain, and peaceful migration-or simply rapid demographic growth-may have also caused the "Bantu explosion".
set in 产生，开始，到来，恶化
fleeing v. 迅速离开;(尤指害怕有危险而)逃避，逃跑 flee的现在分词
desiccation n. 干涸;枯竭
tongue n. 舌头;舌;语言;口条;说话方式
still conj. 然而，但是;尽管如此
demographic adj. 人口统计学的;人口学的
Paragraph 6 mentions all of the following as possible causes of the "Bantu explosion" EXCEPT
A. superior weapons
B. better hunting skills
C. peaceful migration
D. increased population
[ TOP4 - L1 ]
NARRATOR
Listen to part of a lecture in a biology class. The class is discussing animal behavior.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
OK, the next kind of animal behavior I want to talk about might be familiar to you.
You may have seen, for example, a bird that's in the middle of a mating ritual.
And, and suddenly it stops and preens--you know, it takes a few moments to straighten its feathers--and then returns to the mating ritual.
This kind of behavior-- this doing something that seems completely out of place--is what we call a displacement activity.
Displacement activities are activities that animals engage in when they have conflicting drives—if, if we take our example from a minute ago—if, if the bird is afraid of its mate, it's conflicted, it wants to mate, but it's also afraid and wants to run away, so instead it starts grooming itself.
So the displacement activity, the, the grooming, the straightening of its feathers seems to be an irrelevant behavior.
So what do you think another example of a displacement activity might be?
MALE STUDENT
How about an animal that, um, instead of fighting its enemy or running away, it attacks a plant or a bush?
FEMALE PROFESSOR
That's a really good suggestion, Carl, but that's called redirecting.
The animal is redirecting its behavior to another object, in this case, the plant or the bush.
But that's not an irrelevant or inappropriate behavior—the behavior makes sense—it’s appropriate under the circumstances, but what doesn't make sense is the object the behavior's directed towards.
OK, who else? Carol?
FAMALE STUDENT
I think I read in another class about an experiment, um, where an object that the animal was afraid of was put next to its food—next to the animal's food—and the animal, it was conflicted between confronting the object, and eating the food, so instead it just fell asleep. Like that? [with uncertainty]
FEMALE PROFESSOR
That's exactly what I mean.
Displacement occurs because the animal's got two conflicting drives, two competing urges, in this case, fear and hunger—and what happens is they inhibit each other—they cancel each other out in a way, and a third, seemingly irrelevant behavior surfaces … through a process that we call disinhibition.
Now, in disinhibition, the basic idea is that two drives that seem to inhibit, to hold back a third drive, well, well, they get in the way of each other in a, in a conflict situation, and somehow lose control, lose their inhibiting effect on that third behavior…wh-which means that the third drive surfaces...it-it's expressed in the animal's behavior.
Now, these displacement activities can include feeding, drinking, grooming, even sleeping.
These are what we call “comfort behaviors.” So why do you think displacement activities are so often comfort behaviors, such as grooming?
MALE STUDENT
Maybe because it's easy for them to do—I mean, grooming is like one of the most accessible things an animal can do—it’s something they do all the time, and they have the–the stimulus right there, on the outside of their bodies in order to do the grooming—or if food is right in front of them.
Basically, they don't have to think very much about those behaviors.
FEMALE STUDENT
Professor, isn't it possible that animals groom because they've gotten messed up a little from fighting or mating?
I mean, if a bird's feathers get ruffled, or an animal's fur—maybe it's not so strange for them to stop and tidy themselves up at that point.
FEMALE PROFESSOR
That's another possible reason, although it doesn't necessarily explain other behaviors such as eating, drinking, or sleeping.
What's interesting is that studies have been done that suggest that the animal's environment may play a part in determining what kind of behavior it displays.
For example, there's a bird–the wood thrush, anyway when the wood thrush is in an attack-escape conflict—that is, it's caught between the two urges to escape from or attack an enemy—if it's sitting on a horizontal branch, it'll wipe its beak on its perch.
If it's sitting on a vertical branch, it, um, will groom its breast feathers.
The immediate environment of the bird—its immediate, um, its relationship to its immediate environment seems to play a part in which behavior it will display.
preen v. 精心修饰;刻意打扮(并自我欣赏);顾盼自雄;沾沾自喜;得意扬扬;(用喙)整理羽毛
straighten v. (使)变直，变正;挺直，端正(身体)
out of place 不在正确的位置;不在通常的位置;格格不入;不相称;不适当;不适时
displacement n. 取代;移位;替代;免职;排水量
conflicting adj. 互相斗争的；相冲突的 conflict的现在分词
grooming v. 擦洗，刷洗;理毛，梳毛;使作好准备;培养 groom的现在分词
fighting v. 打仗;战斗;作战;搏斗;
makes sense 有道理;说得通
directed v. 把…对准(某方向或某人);管理;监督;
towards prep. 朝着;向;朝;对着;
competing v. 竞争;对抗;参加比赛(或竞赛) compete的现在分词
urge v. 催促;敦促;力劝;
inhibit vt. 阻止;阻碍;抑制;使拘束;使尴尬
cancel out 抵消
surface v. 升到水面;浮出水面;露面，重新出现，显露
disinhibition n. 去抑制;抑制解除
[ TOP13 - P3 ]
In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used to determine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following the stimulus. The difference between the two measures provides the researcher with an indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant's general level of motor activity -turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth - have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities.
indirect adj. 间接的;附带的;闪烁其词的;拐弯抹角
range n. 范围;领域;音域;广泛（性）;级别，等级，阶层;一系列
primary adj. 初级的;主要的;最重要的;基本的;
frequency n. 频率;频繁;发生率;出现率;重复率
change v. 改变;变化;使不同;(使)变换，改换
introduction n. 介绍;引进;初次投入使用;推行
verbalize v. 用言语(或文字)表达
fill out 填，填写（表格等）;（很瘦的人）发胖，长胖
questionnaire n. 问卷调查;问卷;调查表
uniformly adv. 均匀地；一致地；一律
Paragraph 1 indicates that researchers use indirect methods primarily to observe the
A. range of motor activity in neonates
B. frequency and duration of various stimuli
C. change in an infant's state following the introduction of a stimulus
D. range of an infant's visual field
The word "uniformly" in the passage is closest in meaning to
A. clearly
B. quickly
C. consistently
D. occasionally
In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used to determine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following the stimulus. The difference between the two measures provides the researcher with an indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant's general level of motor activity -turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth - have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities.
identify vt. 识别;鉴定;确认;
pattern n. 图案;模式;方式;范例;典范;
perceived adj. 感知到的；感观的 perceive的过去分词和过去式
Why does the author mention "repetitive following movements of the eye"?
A. To identify a response that indicates a neonate's perception of a stimulus
B. To explain why a neonate is capable of responding to stimuli only through repetitive movements
C. To argue that motor activity in a neonate may be random and unrelated to stimuli
D. To emphasize that responses to stimuli vary in infants according to age
Such techniques, however, have limitations. First, the observation may be unreliable in that two or more observers may not agree that the particular response occurred, or to what degree it occurred. Second, responses are difficult to quantify. Often the rapid and diffuse movements of the infant make it difficult to get an accurate record of the number of responses. The third, and most potent, limitation is that it is not possible to be certain that the infant's response was due to the stimulus presented or to a change from no stimulus to a stimulus. The infant may be responding to aspects of the stimulus different than those identified by the investigator. Therefore, when observational assessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities, care must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or two studies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of the infant.
actual adj. 真实的;实际的;(强调事情最重要的部分)真正的，…本身
diffusely adv. 扩（分）散地；漫射地
potent adj.有强效的;强有力的，有影响力的;有说服力的;浓烈的;（男子）有性能力的
Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a problem in using the technique of direct observation?
A. It is impossible to be certain of the actual cause of an infant's response.
B. Infants' responses, which occur quickly and diffusely, are often difficult to measure.
C. Infants do not respond well to stimuli presented in an unnatural laboratory setting.
D. It may be difficult for observers to agree on the presence or the degree of a response.
Two additional techniques of studying infant perception have come into vogue. The first is the habituation-dishabituation technique, in which a single stimulus is presented repeatedly to the infant until there is a measurable decline (habituation) in whatever attending behavior is being observed. At that point a new stimulus is presented, and any recovery (dishabituation) in responsiveness is recorded. If the infant fails to dishabituate and continues to show habituation with the new stimulus, it is assumed that the baby is unable to perceive the new stimulus as different. The habituation-dishabituation paradigm has been used most extensively with studies of auditory and olfactory perception in infants. The second technique relies on evoked potentials, which are electrical brain responses that may be related to a particular stimulus because of where they originate. Changes in the electrical pattern of the brain indicate that the stimulus is getting through to the infant's central nervous system and eliciting some form of response.
According to paragraph 4, which of the following leads to the conclusion that infants are able to differentiate between stimuli in a habituation-dishabituation study?
A. Dishabituation occurs with the introduction of a new stimulus.
B. Electrical responses in the infant's brain decline with each new stimulus.
C. Habituation is continued with the introduction of a new stimulus.
D. The infant displays little change in electrical brain responses.
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