电源完整性3

5.实际电容的特性

正确使用电容进行电源退耦,必须了解实际电容的频率特性。理想电容器在实际中是不存在的,这就是为什么经常听到“电容不仅仅是电容”的原因。

实际的电容器总会存在一些寄生参数,这些寄生参数在低频时表现不明显,但是高频情况下,其重要性可能会超过容值本身。下图是实际电容器的SPICE模型,图中,ESR代表等效串联电阻,ESL代表等效串联电感或寄生电感,C为理想电容。

电容模型

等效串联电感(寄生电感)无法消除,只要存在引线,就会有寄生电感。这从磁场能量变化的角度可以很容易理解,电流发生变化时,磁场能量发生变化,但是不可能发生能量跃变,表现出电感特性。寄生电感会延缓电容电流的变化,电感越大,电容充放电阻抗就越大,反应时间就越长。等效串联电阻也不可消除的,很简单,因为制作电容的材料不是超导体。

讨论实际电容特性之前,首先介绍谐振的概念。对于上面的电容模型,其复阻抗为:

自谐振频率点是区分电容是容性还是感性的分界点,高于谐振频率时,“电容不再是电容”,因此退耦作用将下降。因此,实际电容器都有一定的工作频率范围,只有在其工作频率范围内,电容才具有很好的退耦作用,使用电容进行电源退耦时要特别关注这一点。寄生电感(等效串联电感)是电容器在高于自谐振频率点之后退耦功能被消弱的根本原因。下图显示了一个实际的0805封装0.1uF陶瓷电容,其阻抗随频率变化的曲线。

 

电容阻抗特性

电容的自谐振频率值和它的电容值及等效串联电感值有关,使用时可查看器件手册,了解该项参数,确定电容的有效频率范围。下面列出了AVX生产的陶瓷电容不同封装的各项参数值。

封装 ESL(nH) ESR(欧姆)

0402 0.4 0.06

0603 0.5 0.098

0805 0.6 0.079

1206 1 0.12

1210 0.9 0.12

1812 1.4 0.203

2220 1.6 0.285

电容的等效串联电感和生产工艺和封装尺寸有关,同一个厂家的同种封装尺寸的电容,其等效串联电感基本相同。通常小封装的电容等效串联电感更低,宽体封装的电容比窄体封装的电容有更低的等效串联电感。

既然电容可以看成RLC串联电路,因此也会存在品质因数,即Q值,这也是在使用电容时的一个重要参数。

电路在谐振时容抗等于感抗,所以电容和电感上两端的电压有效值必然相等,电容上的电压有效值UC=I*1/ωC=U/ωCR=QU,品质因数Q=1/ωCR,这里I是电路的总电流。电感上的电压有效值UL=ωLI=ωL*U/R=QU,品质因数Q=ωL/R。因为:UC=UL 所以Q=1/ωCR=ωL/R。电容上的电压与外加信号电压U之比UC/U=(I*1/ωC)/RI=1/ωCR=Q。电感上的电压与外加信号电压U之比UL/U=ωLI/RI=ωL/R=Q。从上面分析可见,电路的品质因数越高,电感或电容上的电压比外加电压越高。

 

Q值的影响

Q值影响电路的频率选择性。当电路处于谐振频率时,有最大的电流,偏离谐振频率时总电流减小。我们用I/I0表示通过电容的电流与谐振电流的比值,即相对变化率。 表示频率偏离谐振频率程度。上图显示了I/I0与频率关系曲线。这里有三条曲线,对应三个不同的Q值,其中有Q1>Q2>Q3。从图中可看出当外加信号频率ω偏离电路的谐振频率ω0时,I/I0均小于1。Q值越高在一定的频偏下电流下降得越快,其谐振曲线越尖锐。也就是说电路的选择性是由电路的品质因素Q所决定的,Q值越高选择性越好。

在电路板上会放置一些大的电容,通常是坦电容或电解电容。这类电容有很低的ESL,但是ESR很高,因此Q值很低,具有很宽的有效频率范围,非常适合板级电源滤波。

6.电容的安装谐振频率

当电容安装到电路板上后,还会引入额外的寄生参数,从而引起谐振频率的偏移。充分理解电容的自谐振频率和安装谐振频率非常重要,在计算系统参数时,实际使用的是安装谐振频率,而不是自谐振频率,因为我们关注的是电容安装到电路板上之后的表现。

电容在电路板上的安装通常包括一小段从焊盘拉出的引出线,两个或更多的过孔。我们知道,不论引线还是过孔都存在寄生电感。寄生电感是我们主要关注的重要参数,因为它对电容的特性影响最大。电容安装后,可以对其周围一小片区域有效去耦,这涉及到去耦半径问题,本文后面还要详细讲述。现在我们考察这样一种情况,电容要对距离它2厘米处的一点去耦,这时寄生电感包括哪几部分。首先,电容自身存在寄生电感。从电容到达需要去耦区域的路径上包括焊盘、一小段引出线、过孔、2厘米长的电源及地平面,这几个部分都存在寄生电感。相比较而言,过孔的寄生电感较大。可以用公式近似计算一个过孔的寄生电感有多大。公式为

 

其中:L是过孔的寄生电感,单位是nH。h为过孔的长度,和板厚有关,单位是英寸。d为过孔的直径,单位是英寸。下面就计算一个常见的过孔的寄生电感,看看有多大,以便有一个感性认识。设过孔的长度为63mil(对应电路板的厚度1.6毫米,这一厚度的电路板很常见),过孔直径8mil,根据上面公式得:

 

这一寄生电感比很多小封装电容自身的寄生电感要大,必须考虑它的影响。过孔的直径越大,寄生电感越小。过孔长度越长,电感越大。下面我们就以一个0805封装0.01uF电容为例,计算安装前后谐振频率的变化。参数如下:容值:C=0.01uF。电容自身等效串联电感:ESL=0.6 nH。安装后增加的寄生电感:Lmount=1.5nH。

电容的自谐振频率:

 

安装后的总寄生电感:0.6+1.5=2.1nH。注意,实际上安装一个电容至少要两个过孔,寄生电感是串联的,如果只用两个过孔,则过孔引入的寄生电感就有3nH。但是在电容的每一端都并联几个过孔,可以有效减小总的寄生电感量,这和安装方法有关。

安装后的谐振频率为:

 

 

可见,安装后电容的谐振频率发生了很大的偏移,使得小电容的高频去耦特性被消弱。在进行电路参数设计时,应以这个安装后的谐振频率计算,因为这才是电容在电路板上的实际表现。

 

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Publisher: Prentice Hall PTR Pub Date: September 15, 2003 ISBN: 0-13-066946-6 Pages: 608 Section 2.7. The Spectrum of an Ideal Square Wave Section 2.8. From the Frequency Domain to the Time Domain Section 2.9. Effect of Bandwidth on Rise Time Section 2.10. Bandwidth and Rise Time Section 2.11. What Does "Significant" Mean? Section 2.12. Bandwidth of Real Signals Section 2.13. Bandwidth and Clock Frequency Section 2.14. Bandwidth of a Measurement Section 2.15. Bandwidth of a Model Section 2.16. Bandwidth of an Interconnect Section 2.17. Bottom Line Chapter 3. Impedance and Electrical Models Section 3.1. Describing Signal-Integrity Solutions in Terms of Impedance Section 3.2. What Is Impedance? Section 3.3. Real vs. Ideal Circuit Elements Section 3.4. Impedance of an Ideal Resistor in the Time Domain Section 3.5. Impedance of an Ideal Capacitor in the Time Domain Section 3.6. Impedance of an Ideal Inductor in the Time Domain Section 3.7. Impedance in the Frequency Domain Section 3.8. Equivalent Electrical Circuit Models Section 3.9. Circuit Theory and SPICE Section 3.10. Introduction to Modeling Section 3.11. The Bottom Line Chapter 4. The Physical Basis of Resistance Section 4.1. Translating Physical Design into Electrical Performance Section 4.2. The Only Good Approximation for the Resistance of Interconnects Section 4.3. Bulk Resistivity Section 4.4. Resistance per Length Section 4.5. Sheet Resistance Section 4.6. The Bottom Line Chapter 5. The Physical Basis of Capacitance Section 5.1. Current Flow in Capacitors Section 5.2. The Capacitance of a Sphere Section 5.3. Parallel Plate Approximation Section 5.4. Dielectric Constant Section 5.5. Power and Ground Planes and Decoupling Capacitance Section 5.6. Capacitance per Length Section 5.7. 2D Field Solvers Section 5.8. Effective Dielectric Constant Section 5.9. The Bottom Line Chapter 6. The Physical Basis of Inductance Section 6.1. What Is Inductance? Section 6.2. Inductance Principle #1: There Are Circular Magnetic-Field Line Loops Around All Currents Section 6.3. Inductance Principle #2: Inductance Is the Number of Webers of Field Line Loops Around a Conductor per Amp of Current Through It Section 6.4. Self-Inductance and Mutual Inductance Section 6.5. Inductance Principle #3: When the Number of Field Line Loops Around a Conductor Changes, There Will Be a Voltage Induced Across the Ends of the Conductor Section 6.6. Partial Inductance Section 6.7. Effective, Total, or Net Inductance and Ground Bounce Section 6.8. Loop Self- and Mutual Inductance Section 6.9. The Power-Distribution System (PDS) and Loop Inductance Section 6.10. Loop Inductance per Square of Planes Section 6.11. Loop Inductance of Planes and Via Contacts Section 6.12. Loop Inductance of Planes with a Field of Clearance Holes Section 6.13. Loop Mutual Inductance Section 6.14. Equivalent Inductance Section 6.15. Summary of Inductance Section 6.16. Current Distributions and Skin Depth Section 6.17. High-Permeability Materials Section 6.18. Eddy Currents Section 6.19. The Bottom Line Chapter 7. The Physical Basis of Transmission Lines Section 7.1. Forget the Word Ground Section 7.2. The Signal Section 7.3. Uniform Transmission Lines Section 7.4. The Speed of Electrons in Copper Section 7.5. The Speed of a Signal in a Transmission Line Section 7.6. Spatial Extent of the Leading Edge Section 7.7. "Be the Signal" Section 7.8. The Instantaneous Impedance of a Transmission Line Section 7.9. Characteristic Impedance and Controlled Impedance Section 7.10. Famous Characteristic Impedances Section 7.11. The Impedance of a Transmission Line Section 7.12. Driving a Transmission Line Section 7.13. Return Paths Section 7.14. When Return Paths Switch Reference Planes Section 7.15. A First-Order Model of a Transmission Line Section 7.16. Calculating Characteristic Impedance with Approximations Section 7.17. Calculating the Characteristic Impedance with a 2D Field Solver Section 7.18. An n-Section Lumped Circuit Model Section 7.19. Frequency Variation of the Characteristic Impedance Section 7.20. The Bottom Line Chapter 8. Transmission Lines and Reflections Section 8.1. Reflections at Impedance Changes Section 8.2. Why Are There Reflections? Section 8.3. Reflections from Resistive Loads Section 8.4. Source Impedance Section 8.5. Bounce Diagrams Section 8.6. Simulating Reflected Waveforms Section 8.7. Measuring Reflections with a TDR Section 8.8. Transmission Lines and Unintentional Discontinuities Section 8.9. When to Terminate Section 8.10. The Most Common Termination Strategy for Point-to-Point Topology Section 8.11. Reflections from Short Series Transmission Lines Section 8.12. Reflections from Short-Stub Transmission Lines Section 8.13. Reflections from Capacitive End Terminations Section 8.14. Reflections from Capacitive Loads in the Middle of a Trace Section 8.15. Capacitive Delay Adders Section 8.16. Effects of Corners and Vias Section 8.17. Loaded Lines Section 8.18. Reflections from Inductive Discontinuities Section 8.19. Compensation Section 8.20. The Bottom Line Chapter 9. Lossy Lines, Rise-Time Degradation, and Material Properties Section 9.1. Why Worry About Lossy Lines Section 9.2. Losses in Transmission Lines Section 9.3. Sources of Loss: Conductor Resistance and Skin Depth Section 9.4. Sources of Loss: The Dielectric Section 9.5. Dissipation Factor Section 9.6. The Real Meaning of Dissipation Factor Section 9.7. Modeling Lossy Transmission Lines Section 9.8. Characteristic Impedance of a Lossy Transmission Line Section 9.9. Signal Velocity in a Lossy Transmission Line Section 9.10. Attenuation and the dB Section 9.11. Attenuation in Lossy Lines Section 9.12. Measured Properties of a Lossy Line in the Frequency Domain Section 9.13. The Bandwidth of an Interconnect Section 9.14. Time-Domain Behavior of Lossy Lines Section 9.15. Improving the Eye Diagram of a Transmission Line Section 9.16. Pre-emphasis and Equalization Section 9.17. The Bottom Line Chapter 10. Cross Talk in Transmission Lines Section 10.1. Superposition Section 10.2. Origin of Coupling: Capacitance and Inductance Section 10.3. Cross Talk in Transmission Lines: NEXT and FEXT Section 10.4. Describing Cross Talk Section 10.5. The SPICE Capacitance Matrix Section 10.6. The Maxwell Capacitance Matrix and 2D Field Solvers Section 10.7. The Inductance Matrix Section 10.8. Cross Talk in Uniform Transmission Lines and Saturation Length Section 10.9. Capacitively Coupled Currents Section 10.10. Inductively Coupled Currents Section 10.11. Near-End Cross Talk Section 10.12. Far-End Cross Talk Section 10.13. Decreasing Far-End Cross Talk Section 10.14. Simulating Cross Talk Section 10.15. Guard Traces Section 10.16. Cross Talk and Dielectric Constant Section 10.17. Cross Talk and Timing Section 10.18. Switching Noise Section 10.19. Summary of Reducing Cross Talk Section 10.20. The Bottom Line Chapter 11. Differential Pairs and Differential Impedance Section 11.1. Differential Signaling Section 11.2. A Differential Pair Section 11.3. Differential Impedance with No Coupling Section 11.4. The Impact from Coupling Section 11.5. Calculating Differential Impedance Section 11.6. The Return-Current Distribution in a Differential Pair Section 11.7. Odd and Even Modes Section 11.8. Differential Impedance and Odd-Mode Impedance Section 11.9. Common Impedance and Even-Mode Impedance Section 11.10. Differential and Common Signals and Odd- and Even-Mode Voltage Components Section 11.11. Velocity of Each Mode and Far-End Cross Talk Section 11.12. Ideal Coupled Transmission-Line Model or an Ideal Differential Pair Section 11.13. Measuring Even- and Odd-Mode Impedance Section 11.14. Terminating Differential and Common Signals Section 11.15. Conversion of Differential to Common Signals Section 11.16. EMI and Common Signals Section 11.17. Cross Talk in Differential Pairs Section 11.18. Crossing a Gap in the Return Path Section 11.19. To Tightly Couple or Not to Tightly Couple Section 11.20. Calculating Odd and Even Modes from Capacitance- and Inductance-Matrix Elements Section 11.21. The Characteristic Impedance Matrix Section 11.22. The Bottom Line Appendix A. 100 General Design Guidelines to Minimize Signal-Integrity Problems Section A.1. Minimize Signal-Quality Problems on One Net Section A.2. Minimize Cross Talk Section A.3. Minimize Rail Collapse Section A.4. Minimize EMI Appendix B. 100 Collected Rules of Thumb to Help Estimate Signal-Integrity Effects Section B.1. Chapter 2 Section B.2. Chapter 3 Section B.3. Chapter 4 Section B.4. Chapter 5 Section B.5. Chapter 6 Section B.6. Chapter 7 Section B.7. Chapter 8 Section B.8. Chapter 9 Section B.9. Chapter 10 Section B.10. Chapter 11 Appendix C. Selected References About the Author
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