初等数学
因式分解
a 3 + b 3 = ( a + b ) ( a 2 − a b + b 2 ) a^3+b^3=(a+b)(a^2-ab+b^2) a3+b3=(a+b)(a2−ab+b2)
a 3 − b 3 = ( a − b ) ( a 2 + a b + b 2 ) a^3-b^3=(a-b)(a^2+ab+b^2) a3−b3=(a−b)(a2+ab+b2)
a n − b n = ( a − b ) ( a n − 1 + a n − 2 b + ⋯ + a b n − 2 + b n − 1 ) a^n-b^n=(a-b)(a^{n-1}+a^{n-2}b+\cdots+ab^{n-2}+b^{n-1}) an−bn=(a−b)(an−1+an−2b+⋯+abn−2+bn−1)
数列
等差数列
a n = a 1 + ( n − 1 ) d a_n=a_1+(n-1)d an=a1+(n−1)d
S n = 1 2 ( a 1 + a n ) S_n=\frac12(a_1+a_n) Sn=21(a1+an)
等比数列
a n = a 1 q n − 1 a_n=a_1q^{n-1} an=a1qn−1
S n = a 1 ( 1 − q n ) 1 − q = a 1 − a n q 1 − q S_n={\frac{a_{1}(1-q^{n})}{1-q}}=\frac{a_1-a_nq}{1-q} Sn=1−qa1(1−qn)=1−qa1−anq
其他
1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 + ⋯ + n 2 = 1 6 n ( n + 1 ) ( 2 n + 1 ) 1^2+2^2+3^2+\cdots+n^2 = \frac16n(n+1)(2n+1) 12+22+32+⋯+n2=61n(n+1)(2n+1)
三角
倍角
sin 2 α = 2 sin α cos α \sin 2\alpha = 2\sin \alpha \cos \alpha sin2α=2sinαcosα
cos 2 α = cos 2 α − sin 2 α = 2 cos 2 α − 1 = 1 − 2 sin 2 α \cos 2\alpha = \cos^2 \alpha - \sin^2 \alpha = 2\cos^2 \alpha - 1 = 1 - 2\sin^2 \alpha cos2α=cos2α−sin2α=2cos2α−1=1−2sin2α
tan 2 α = 2 tan α 1 − tan 2 α \tan2\alpha=\frac{2\tan\alpha}{1-\tan^2\alpha} tan2α=1−tan2α2tanα
平方
sin 2 α + cos 2 α = 1 \sin^2 \alpha + \cos^2 \alpha = 1 sin2α+cos2α=1
sec 2 α = tan 2 α + 1 \sec^2 \alpha = \tan^2 \alpha + 1 sec2α=tan2α+1
csc 2 α = cot 2 α + 1 \csc^2 \alpha = \cot^2\alpha + 1 csc2α=cot2α+1
和差
sin ( α ± β ) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β \sin (\alpha \pm \beta) = \sin \alpha \cos \beta \pm \cos \alpha \sin \beta sin(α±β)=sinαcosβ±cosαsinβ
cos ( α ± β ) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β \cos(\alpha \pm \beta) = \cos \alpha \cos \beta \mp \sin \alpha \sin \beta cos(α±β)=cosαcosβ∓sinαsinβ
tan ( α ± β ) = tan α ± tan β 1 ∓ tan α tan β \tan(\alpha\pm\beta)=\frac{\tan\alpha\pm\tan\beta}{1\mp\tan\alpha\tan\beta} tan(α±β)=1∓tanαtanβtanα±tanβ
降阶
sin 2 α = 1 2 ( 1 − cos 2 α ) \sin^2 \alpha = \frac12(1-\cos 2\alpha) sin2α=21(1−cos2α)
cos 2 α = 1 2 ( 1 + cos 2 α ) \cos^2 \alpha = \frac12(1+\cos 2\alpha) cos2α=21(1+cos2α)
几何
扇形面积: S = r 2 θ 2 S=\frac{r^2\theta}{2} S=2r2θ
扇形弧长: l = r θ l=r\theta l=rθ
球体体积:
V
=
4
3
π
R
3
V=\frac43\pi R^3
V=34πR3
球体表面积:
S
=
4
π
R
2
S=4\pi R^2
S=4πR2
基本不等式
a b ≤ a + b 2 a 2 + b 2 2 \sqrt{ab}\leq\frac{a+b}2\sqrt{\frac{a^2+b^2}2} ab≤2a+b2a2+b2
a b c 3 ≤ a + b + c 3 ≤ a 2 + b 2 + c 2 3 \sqrt[3]{abc}\leq\frac{a+b+c}3\leq\sqrt{\frac{a^2+b^2+c^2}3} 3abc≤3a+b+c≤3a2+b2+c2
( a c + b d ) 2 ≤ ( a 2 + b 2 ) ( c 2 + d 2 ) (ac+bd)^2\leq(a^2+b^2)(c^2+d^2) (ac+bd)2≤(a2+b2)(c2+d2)
一元微分
定义式
f ′ ( x 0 ) = lim Δ x → 0 f ( x 0 + Δ x ) − f ( x 0 ) Δ x = lim x → x 0 f ( x ) − f ( x 0 ) x − x 0 f'(x_0) = \lim\limits_{\Delta x\to0}\frac{f(x_0+\Delta x)-f(x_0)}{\Delta x} = \lim\limits_{x\to x_0}\frac{f(x)-f(x_0)}{x-x_0} f′(x0)=Δx→0limΔxf(x0+Δx)−f(x0)=x→x0limx−x0f(x)−f(x0)
Δ y = f ( x 0 + Δ x ) − f ( x 0 ) \Delta y=f(x_0+\Delta x)-f(x_0) Δy=f(x0+Δx)−f(x0)
d y = f ′ ( x 0 ) d x \text{d}y=f'(x_0)\text{d}x dy=f′(x0)dx
Δ y − d y = o ( Δ x ) \Delta y-\text{d}y=o(\Delta x) Δy−dy=o(Δx)
基本公式(5+10)
( x a ) ′ = a x a − 1 , a > 0 (x^a)'=ax^{a-1}, a>0 (xa)′=axa−1,a>0
( a x ) ′ = a x ln a (a^x)'=a^x\ln a (ax)′=axlna
( e x ) ′ = e x (e^x)'=e^x (ex)′=ex
( log a x ) ′ = 1 x ln a (\log_ax)'=\frac1{x\ln a} (logax)′=xlna1
( ln ∣ x ∣ ) ′ = 1 x (\ln |x|)'=\frac1x (ln∣x∣)′=x1
( sin x ) ′ = cos x (\sin x)'=\cos x (sinx)′=cosx
( cos x ) ′ = − sin x (\cos x)'=-\sin x (cosx)′=−sinx
( tan x ) ′ = sec 2 x (\tan x)'=\sec^2x (tanx)′=sec2x
( cot x ) ′ = − csc 2 x (\cot x)'=-\csc^2x (cotx)′=−csc2x
( sec x ) ′ = sec x tan x (\sec x)'=\sec x\tan x (secx)′=secxtanx
( csc x ) ′ = − csc x cot x (\csc x)'=-\csc x\cot x (cscx)′=−cscxcotx
( arcsin x ) ′ = 1 1 − x 2 (\arcsin x)'=\frac1{\sqrt{1-x^2}} (arcsinx)′=1−x21
( arccos x ) ′ = − 1 1 − x 2 (\arccos x)'=-\frac1{\sqrt{1-x^2}} (arccosx)′=−1−x21
( arctan x ) ′ = 1 1 + x 2 (\arctan x)'=\frac1{1+x^2} (arctanx)′=1+x21
( arccot x ) ′ = − 1 1 + x 2 (\text{arccot }x)'=-\frac1{1+x^2} (arccot x)′=−1+x21
高阶导数
( 1 a x + b ) ( n ) = ( − 1 ) n n ! a n ( a x + b ) n + 1 (\frac{1}{ax+b})^{(n)}=\frac{(-1)^nn!a^n}{(ax+b)^{n+1}} (ax+b1)(n)=(ax+b)n+1(−1)nn!an
莱布尼茨公式 ( u v ) ( n ) = ∑ k = 0 n C n k u k v ( n − k ) (uv)^{(n)} = \sum\limits_{k=0}^n C_n^k u^kv^{(n-k)} (uv)(n)=k=0∑nCnkukv(n−k)
中值定理
介值: m ≤ μ ≤ M ⇒ f ( ξ ) = μ m\leq\mu\leq M \Rightarrow f(\xi) = \mu m≤μ≤M⇒f(ξ)=μ
零点: f ( a ) ⋅ f ( b ) < 0 ⇒ f ′ ( ξ ) = 0 f(a)\cdot f(b) < 0 \Rightarrow f'(\xi) = 0 f(a)⋅f(b)<0⇒f′(ξ)=0
费马: x = x 0 x=x_0 x=x0处连续可导取极值 ⇒ f ′ ( x 0 ) = 0 \Rightarrow f'(x_0)=0 ⇒f′(x0)=0(充分不必要条件)
罗尔: f ( a ) = f ( b ) ⇒ f ′ ( ξ ) = 0 f(a)=f(b)\Rightarrow f'(\xi) = 0 f(a)=f(b)⇒f′(ξ)=0
拉格朗日: f ( b ) − f ( a ) = f ′ ( ξ ) ( b − a ) f(b)-f(a) = f'(\xi)(b-a) f(b)−f(a)=f′(ξ)(b−a)
柯西: f ( b ) − f ( a ) g ( b ) − g ( a ) = f ′ ( ξ ) g ′ ( ξ ) \frac{f(b)-f(a)}{g(b)-g(a)} = \frac{f'(\xi)}{g'(\xi)} g(b)−g(a)f(b)−f(a)=g′(ξ)f′(ξ)
泰勒: f ( x ) = f ( x 0 ) + f ′ ( x 0 ) ( x − x 0 ) + ⋯ + f ( n ) ( x 0 ) ( x − x 0 ) n n ! + f ( n + 1 ) ( ξ ) ( x − x 0 ) n + 1 ( n + 1 ) ! f(x) = f(x_0) + f'(x_0)(x-x_0) + \cdots + \frac{f^{(n)}(x_0)(x-x_0)^n}{n!} + \frac{f^{(n+1)}(\xi)(x-x_0)^{n+1}}{(n+1)!} f(x)=f(x0)+f′(x0)(x−x0)+⋯+n!f(n)(x0)(x−x0)n+(n+1)!f(n+1)(ξ)(x−x0)n+1
当 x 0 x_0 x0取 0 0 0时的泰勒公式,称为麦克劳林公式: f ( x ) = ∑ n = 0 ∞ f ( n ) ( 0 ) ( x ) n n ! f(x) = \sum\limits_{n=0}^{\infty}\frac{f^{(n)}(0)(x)^n}{n!} f(x)=n=0∑∞n!f(n)(0)(x)n
麦克劳林展开式(5+5)
e x = ∑ n = 0 ∞ x n n ! = 1 + x + x 2 2 ! + x 3 3 ! + o ( x 3 ) , − ∞ < x < + ∞ e^x=\sum\limits^\infty_{n=0}\frac{x^n}{n!}=1+x+\frac{x^2}{2!}+\frac{x^3}{3!}+o(x^3), -\infty<x<+\infty ex=n=0∑∞n!xn=1+x+2!x2+3!x3+o(x3),−∞<x<+∞
ln ( 1 + x ) = ∑ n = 1 ∞ ( − 1 ) n − 1 x n n = x − x 2 2 + x 3 3 + o ( x 3 ) , − 1 < x ≤ 1 \ln(1+x)=\sum\limits^\infty_{n=1}(-1)^{n-1}\frac{x^n}{n}=x-\frac{x^2}2+\frac{x^3}3+o(x^3), -1<x\leq1 ln(1+x)=n=1∑∞(−1)n−1nxn=x−2x2+3x3+o(x3),−1<x≤1
1 1 + x = ∑ n = 0 ∞ ( − 1 ) n x n = 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 + o ( x 3 ) , − 1 < x < 1 \frac1{1+x}=\sum\limits^\infty_{n=0}(-1)^nx^n=1-x+x^2-x^3+o(x^3), -1<x<1 1+x1=n=0∑∞(−1)nxn=1−x+x2−x3+o(x3),−1<x<1
1 1 − x = ∑ n = 0 ∞ x n = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + o ( x 3 ) , − 1 < x < 1 \frac1{1-x}=\sum\limits^\infty_{n=0}x^n=1+x+x^2+x^3+o(x^3), -1<x<1 1−x1=n=0∑∞xn=1+x+x2+x3+o(x3),−1<x<1
( 1 + x ) a = 1 + a x + a ( a − 1 ) 2 ! x 2 + a ( a − 1 ) ( a − 2 ) 3 ! x 3 + o ( x 3 ) (1+x)^a=1+ax+\frac{a(a-1)}{2!}x^2+\frac{a(a-1)(a-2)}{3!}x^3+o(x^3) (1+x)a=1+ax+2!a(a−1)x2+3!a(a−1)(a−2)x3+o(x3)
sin x = ∑ n = 0 ∞ ( − 1 ) n x 2 n + 1 ( 2 n + 1 ) ! = x − x 3 3 ! + x 5 5 ! + o ( x 5 ) , − ∞ < x < + ∞ \sin x=\sum\limits^\infty_{n=0}(-1)^n\frac{x^{2n+1}}{(2n+1)!}=x-\frac{x^3}{3!}+\frac{x^5}{5!}+o(x^5), -\infty<x<+\infty sinx=n=0∑∞(−1)n(2n+1)!x2n+1=x−3!x3+5!x5+o(x5),−∞<x<+∞
cos x = ∑ n = 0 ∞ ( − 1 ) n x 2 n ( 2 n ) ! = 1 − x 2 2 ! + x 4 4 ! + o ( x 4 ) , − ∞ < x < + ∞ \cos x=\sum\limits^\infty_{n=0}(-1)^n\frac{x^{2n}}{(2n)!}=1-\frac{x^2}{2!}+\frac{x^4}{4!}+o(x^4), -\infty<x<+\infty cosx=n=0∑∞(−1)n(2n)!x2n=1−2!x2+4!x4+o(x4),−∞<x<+∞
tan x = x + x 3 3 + o ( x 3 ) \tan x=x+\frac{x^3}3+o({x^3}) tanx=x+3x3+o(x3)
arctan x = x − x 3 3 + x 5 5 + o ( x 3 ) \arctan x=x-\frac{x^3}3+\frac{x^5}{5}+o(x^3) arctanx=x−3x3+5x5+o(x3)
arcsin x = x + x 3 3 ! + o ( x 3 ) \arcsin x=x+\frac{x^3}{3!}+o(x^3) arcsinx=x+3!x3+o(x3)
一元微分的几何应用
渐近线
斜渐近线 a = lim x → ∞ f ( x ) x a=\lim\limits_{x\to\infty}\frac{f(x)}x a=x→∞limxf(x), b = lim x → ∞ [ f ( x ) − a x ] b=\lim\limits_{x\to\infty}[f(x)-ax] b=x→∞lim[f(x)−ax]
弧微分
直角坐标方程: d s = 1 + [ y ′ ( x ) ] 2 d x \text ds=\sqrt{1+[y'(x)]^2}\text dx ds=1+[y′(x)]2dx
参数方程: d s = [ x ′ ( t ) ] 2 + [ y ′ ( t ) ] 2 d t \text ds=\sqrt{[x'(t)]^2+[y'(t)]^2}\text dt ds=[x′(t)]2+[y′(t)]2dt
极坐标方程: d s = [ r ( θ ) ] 2 + [ r ′ ( θ ) ] 2 d θ \text ds=\sqrt{[r(\theta)]^2+[r'(\theta)]^2}\text d\theta ds=[r(θ)]2+[r′(θ)]2dθ
曲率、曲率半径
k = ∣ y ′ ′ ∣ [ 1 + ( y ′ ) 2 ] 3 2 k=\frac{|y''|}{[1+(y')^2]^{\frac32}} k=[1+(y′)2]23∣y′′∣
R = 1 k = [ 1 + ( y ′ ) 2 ] 3 2 ∣ y ′ ′ ∣ R=\frac1k=\frac{[1+(y')^2]^{\frac32}}{|y''|} R=k1=∣y′′∣[1+(y′)2]23
不定积分
基本公式(10+10)
∫ x k d x = 1 k + 1 x k + 1 + C , k ≠ − 1 \int x^k\ dx=\frac{1}{k+1}x^{k+1}+C,\ k\not=-1 ∫xk dx=k+11xk+1+C, k=−1
∫ 1 x d x = ln ∣ x ∣ + C \int \frac{1}{x}\ dx=\ln|x|+C ∫x1 dx=ln∣x∣+C
∫ e x d x = e x + C \int e^x\ dx = e^x+C ∫ex dx=ex+C
∫ a x d x = 1 ln a ⋅ a x + C \int a^x \ dx= \frac{1}{\ln a}\cdot a^x+C ∫ax dx=lna1⋅ax+C
∫ 1 a 2 + x 2 d x = 1 a arctan x a + C \int \frac1{a^2+x^2}\ dx = \frac1a\arctan\frac xa+C ∫a2+x21 dx=a1arctanax+C
∫ 1 a 2 − x 2 d x = arcsin x a + C \int\frac1{\sqrt{a^2-x^2}}\ dx = \arcsin\frac xa+C ∫a2−x21 dx=arcsinax+C
∫ 1 x 2 − a 2 d x = 1 2 a ln ∣ x − a x + a ∣ + C \int\frac1{x^2-a^2}\ dx = \frac1{2a}\ln|\frac{x-a}{x+a}|+C ∫x2−a21 dx=2a1ln∣x+ax−a∣+C
∫ 1 a 2 − x 2 d x = 1 2 a ln ∣ x + a x − a ∣ + C \int\frac1{a^2-x^2}\ dx = \frac1{2a}\ln|\frac{x+a}{x-a}|+C ∫a2−x21 dx=2a1ln∣x−ax+a∣+C
∫ 1 x 2 − a 2 d x = ln ∣ x + x 2 − a 2 ∣ + C \int\frac1{\sqrt{x^2-a^2}}\ dx = \ln|x+\sqrt{x^2-a^2}|+C ∫x2−a21 dx=ln∣x+x2−a2∣+C
∫ 1 x 2 + a 2 d x = ln ∣ x + x 2 + a 2 ∣ + C \int\frac1{\sqrt{x^2+a^2}}\ dx = \ln|x+\sqrt{x^2+a^2}|+C ∫x2+a21 dx=ln∣x+x2+a2∣+C
∫ sin x = − cos x + C \int \sin x = -\cos x + C ∫sinx=−cosx+C
∫ cos x = sin x + C \int \cos x = \sin x + C ∫cosx=sinx+C
∫ tan x = − ln ∣ cos x ∣ + C \int\tan x = -\ln|\cos x| + C ∫tanx=−ln∣cosx∣+C
∫ cot x = ln ∣ sin x ∣ + C \int\cot x = \ln|\sin x| + C ∫cotx=ln∣sinx∣+C
∫ sec x = ln ∣ sec x + tan x ∣ + C \int\sec x = \ln|\sec x +\tan x| + C ∫secx=ln∣secx+tanx∣+C
∫ csc x = ln ∣ csc x − cot x ∣ + C \int\csc x = \ln|\csc x -\cot x| + C ∫cscx=ln∣cscx−cotx∣+C
∫ sec 2 x = tan x + C \int \sec^2 x = \tan x + C ∫sec2x=tanx+C
∫ csc 2 x = − cot x + C \int \csc^2 x = -\cot x + C ∫csc2x=−cotx+C
∫ sec x tan x = sec x + C \int\sec x\tan x = \sec x + C ∫secxtanx=secx+C
∫ csc x cot x = − csc x + C \int\csc x\cot x = -\csc x + C ∫cscxcotx=−cscx+C
三角有理函数常用公式
1 + cos x = 2 cos 2 x 2 1+\cos x=2\cos^2\frac x2 1+cosx=2cos22x
1 + sin x = ( sin x 2 + cos x 2 ) 2 1+\sin x=(\sin\frac x2+\cos\frac x2)^2 1+sinx=(sin2x+cos2x)2
sin x + cos x = 2 cos ( x − π 4 ) \sin x+\cos x=\sqrt2\cos(x-\frac\pi4) sinx+cosx=2cos(x−4π)
1 1 + sin x = 1 1 + cos ( π 2 − x ) = 1 2 cos 2 ( π 4 − 2 x ) = sec 2 ( π 4 − 2 x ) \frac1{1+\sin x}=\frac1{1+\cos(\frac\pi2-x)}=\frac1{2\cos^2(\frac\pi4-\frac2x)}=\sec^2(\frac\pi4-\frac2x) 1+sinx1=1+cos(2π−x)1=2cos2(4π−x2)1=sec2(4π−x2)
换元积分
第一类换元积分法
∫ f [ φ ( x ) ] φ ′ ( x ) d x = ∫ f [ φ ( x ) ] d [ φ ( x ) ] = u = φ ( x ) ∫ f ( u ) d u = F ( u ) + C = F [ φ ( x ) ] + C \int f[\varphi(x)]\varphi'(x)\text dx=\int f[\varphi(x)]\text d[\varphi(x)]\overset{u=\varphi(x)}{=}\int f(u)\text du=F(u)+C=F[\varphi(x)]+C ∫f[φ(x)]φ′(x)dx=∫f[φ(x)]d[φ(x)]=u=φ(x)∫f(u)du=F(u)+C=F[φ(x)]+C
第二类换元积分法
∫ f ( x ) d x = x = φ ( t ) ∫ f [ φ ( t ) ] φ ′ ( t ) d t = ∫ g ( t ) d t = G ( t ) + C = G [ φ − 1 ( x ) ] + C \int f(x)\text dx\overset{x=\varphi(t)}{=}\int f[\varphi(t)]\varphi'(t)\text dt=\int g(t)\text dt=G(t)+C=G[\varphi^{-1}(x)]+C ∫f(x)dx=x=φ(t)∫f[φ(t)]φ′(t)dt=∫g(t)dt=G(t)+C=G[φ−1(x)]+C
分部积分
∫ u d v = u v − ∫ v d u \int u\text dv=uv-\int v\text du ∫udv=uv−∫vdu
定积分
n n n项和
lim n → ∞ ∑ i = 1 n f ( i n ) ⋅ 1 n = ∫ 0 1 f ( x ) d x \lim\limits_{n\to\infty}\sum\limits_{i=1}^nf(\frac in)\cdot\frac1n=\int_0^1f(x) dx n→∞limi=1∑nf(ni)⋅n1=∫01f(x)dx
积分上限函数
求导:
F ′ ( x ) = d d x [ ∫ ϕ 1 ( x ) ϕ 2 ( x ) f ( t ) d t ] = f [ ϕ 2 ( x ) ] ϕ 2 ′ ( x ) − f [ ϕ 1 ( x ) ] ϕ 1 ′ ( x ) F'(x)=\frac{d}{dx}[\int_{\phi_1(x)}^{\phi_2(x)}f(t)\ dt]=f[\phi_2(x)]\phi_2'(x)-f[\phi_1(x)]\phi_1'(x) F′(x)=dxd[∫ϕ1(x)ϕ2(x)f(t) dt]=f[ϕ2(x)]ϕ2′(x)−f[ϕ1(x)]ϕ1′(x)
牛顿-莱布尼茨公式
∫ a b f ( x ) d x = F ( b ) − F ( a ) \int^b_af(x)\text dx=F(b)-F(a) ∫abf(x)dx=F(b)−F(a)
积分中值定理
∫ a b f ( x ) d x = f ( ξ ) ( b − a ) \int_a^b f(x)\ dx = f(\xi)(b-a) ∫abf(x) dx=f(ξ)(b−a), ξ ∈ [ a , b ] \xi\in[a,b] ξ∈[a,b]
∫ a b f ( x ) g ( x ) d x = f ( ξ ) ∫ a b g ( x ) d x \int_a^b f(x)g(x)\ dx = f(\xi)\int_a^b g(x)\ dx ∫abf(x)g(x) dx=f(ξ)∫abg(x) dx, g ( x ) \ g(x) g(x)不变号
特殊性质
∫ − a a f ( x ) = ∫ 0 a [ f ( x ) + f ( − x ) ] d x \int_{-a}^af(x)=\int_0^a[f(x)+f(-x)]\text dx ∫−aaf(x)=∫0a[f(x)+f(−x)]dx
∫ a b f ( x ) d x = ∫ a b f ( a + b − x ) d x \int_a^b f(x)\ dx = \int_a^b f(a+b-x)\ dx ∫abf(x) dx=∫abf(a+b−x) dx
当 n n n为大于等于2的偶数时, ∫ 0 π 2 s i n n x d x = ∫ 0 π 2 c o s n x d x = n − 1 n ⋅ n − 3 n − 2 ⋯ 1 2 ⋅ π 2 = ( 2 n − 1 ) ! ! ( 2 n ) ! ! ⋅ π 2 \int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{2}}{\mathrm{sin}}^nx\ dx=\int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{2}}{\mathrm{cos}}^nx\ dx=\frac{n-1}{n}\cdot\frac{n-3}{n-2}\cdots\frac{1}{2}\cdot\frac{\pi}{2}=\frac{(2n-1)!!}{(2n)!!}\cdot \frac\pi2 ∫02πsinnx dx=∫02πcosnx dx=nn−1⋅n−2n−3⋯21⋅2π=(2n)!!(2n−1)!!⋅2π
当 n n n为大于等于3的奇数时, ∫ 0 π 2 s i n n x d x = ∫ 0 π 2 c o s n x d x = n − 1 n ⋅ n − 3 n − 2 ⋯ 2 3 = ( 2 k ) ! ! ( 2 k + 1 ) ! ! \int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{2}}{\mathrm{sin}}^nx\ dx=\int_{0}^{\frac{\pi}{2}}{\mathrm{cos}}^nx\ dx=\frac{n-1}{n}\cdot\frac{n-3}{n-2}\cdots\frac{2}{3}=\frac{(2k)!!}{(2k+1)!!} ∫02πsinnx dx=∫02πcosnx dx=nn−1⋅n−2n−3⋯32=(2k+1)!!(2k)!!
反常积分
∫ 1 + ∞ 1 x p d x \int_1^{+\infty}\frac1{x^p}\ dx ∫1+∞xp1 dx当 p > 1 p>1 p>1时收敛, p < = 1 p<=1 p<=1时发散(越大越收敛)
∫ 0 1 1 x p d x \int_0^1\frac1{x^p}\ dx ∫01xp1 dx当 p > = 1 p>=1 p>=1时发散, 0 < p < 1 0<p<1 0<p<1时收敛(越小越收敛),有多个因式时仅看无穷小的因式
p = 1 p=1 p=1时都发散
几何应用
平面图形面积
参数方程: S = ∫ a b y ( t ) d x ( t ) S=\int_a^by(t)\text dx(t) S=∫aby(t)dx(t)
极坐标系: S = ∫ α β 1 2 r 2 ( θ ) d θ S=\int_\alpha^\beta\frac12r^2(\theta)\ d\theta S=∫αβ21r2(θ) dθ
平面曲线弧长
直角坐标方程: s = ∫ a b 1 + [ y ′ ( x ) ] 2 d x s=\int_a^b\sqrt{1+[y'(x)]^2}\ dx s=∫ab1+[y′(x)]2 dx
参数方程: s = ∫ α β [ x ′ ( t ) ] 2 + [ y ′ ( t ) ] 2 d t s=\int_\alpha^\beta \sqrt{[x'(t)]^2+[y'(t)]^2}\ dt s=∫αβ[x′(t)]2+[y′(t)]2 dt
极坐标方程: s = ∫ α β [ r ( θ ) ] 2 + [ r ′ ( θ ) ] 2 d θ s=\int_\alpha^\beta \sqrt{[r(\theta)]^2+[r'(\theta)]^2}\ d\theta s=∫αβ[r(θ)]2+[r′(θ)]2 dθ
旋转体体积
V x = π ∫ a b ∣ y 1 2 ( x ) − y 2 2 ( x ) ∣ d x V_x=\pi\int_a^b|y_1^2(x)-y_2^2(x)|\ dx Vx=π∫ab∣y12(x)−y22(x)∣ dx
记: π y 2 d x \pi y^2\text dx πy2dx
V y = 2 π ∫ a b x ∣ y 1 ( x ) − y 2 ( x ) ∣ d x V_y = 2\pi\int_a^b x|y_1(x)-y_2(x)|\ dx Vy=2π∫abx∣y1(x)−y2(x)∣ dx
记: 2 π x y d x 2\pi xy\text dx 2πxydx
旋转体侧面积
直角坐标方程绕 x x x轴: S = 2 π ∫ a b ∣ y ( x ) ∣ 1 + [ y ′ ( x ) ] 2 d x S=2\pi\int_a^b|y(x)|\sqrt{1+[y'(x)]^2}\ dx S=2π∫ab∣y(x)∣1+[y′(x)]2 dx
记: 2 π y d s 2\pi y\text ds 2πyds
参数方程绕 x x x轴: S = 2 π ∫ α β ∣ y ( t ) ∣ [ x ′ ( t ) ] 2 + [ y ′ ( t ) ] 2 d t S=2\pi\int_\alpha^\beta|y(t)|\sqrt{[x'(t)]^2+[y'(t)]^2}\ dt S=2π∫αβ∣y(t)∣[x′(t)]2+[y′(t)]2 dt
记: 2 π y d s 2\pi y\text ds 2πyds
物理应用
多元微分
概念
全增量
Δ z = lim Δ x → 0 Δ y → 0 f ( x + Δ x , y + Δ x ) − f ( x , y ) = A Δ x + B Δ y + o ( ρ ) \Delta z=\lim\limits_{\Delta x\to0 \atop \Delta y\to 0}f(x+\Delta x, y+\Delta x)-f(x, y) = A\Delta x+B\Delta y + o(\rho) Δz=Δy→0Δx→0limf(x+Δx,y+Δx)−f(x,y)=AΔx+BΔy+o(ρ),其中, A = f x ′ ( x , y ) , B = f y ′ ( x , y ) , ρ = x 2 + y 2 A=f'_x(x, y), B=f'_y(x, y), \rho=\sqrt{x^2+y^2} A=fx′(x,y),B=fy′(x,y),ρ=x2+y2
全微分
d z = f x ′ ( x , y ) d x + f y ′ ( x , y ) d y dz = f'_x(x, y)\text dx + f'_y(x, y)\text dy dz=fx′(x,y)dx+fy′(x,y)dy
偏增量
Δ z x = lim Δ x → 0 f ( x + Δ x , y ) − f ( x , y ) = A Δ x + o ( ρ ) \Delta z_x = \lim\limits_{\Delta x\to0}f(x+\Delta x, y) - f(x, y) = A\Delta x + o(\rho) Δzx=Δx→0limf(x+Δx,y)−f(x,y)=AΔx+o(ρ)
偏导
f x ′ ( x 0 , y 0 ) = lim x → x 0 f ( x , y 0 ) − f ( x 0 , y 0 ) x − x 0 f'_x(x_0, y_0)=\lim\limits_{x\to x_0} \frac{f(x, y_0)-f(x_0, y_0)}{x-x_0} fx′(x0,y0)=x→x0limx−x0f(x,y0)−f(x0,y0)
可微的判别:
- 根据定义: Δ z = A Δ x + B Δ y + o ( ρ ) \Delta z=A\Delta x+B\Delta y + o(\rho) Δz=AΔx+BΔy+o(ρ),其中 A A A是 z z z对 x x x的偏导数, B B B是 z z z对 y y y的偏导数
- 根据充要条件: lim ρ → 0 Δ z − A Δ x − B Δ y ρ = 0 \lim\limits_{\rho\to0}\frac{\Delta z-A\Delta x-B\Delta y}{\rho}=0 ρ→0limρΔz−AΔx−BΔy=0
无条件极值
A = f x x ′ ′ ( x 0 , y 0 ) , B = f x y ′ ′ ( x 0 , y 0 ) , C = f y y ′ ′ ( x 0 , y 0 ) A=f''_{xx}(x_0,y_0), B=f''_{xy}(x_0,y_0), C=f''_{yy}(x_0,y_0) A=fxx′′(x0,y0),B=fxy′′(x0,y0),C=fyy′′(x0,y0)
A C − B 2 > 0 , A < 0 AC-B^2>0, A<0 AC−B2>0,A<0,则 ( x 0 , y 0 ) (x_0,y_0) (x0,y0)为极大值点
A C − B 2 > 0 , A > 0 AC-B^2>0, A>0 AC−B2>0,A>0,则 ( x 0 , y 0 ) (x_0,y_0) (x0,y0)为极小值点
A C − B 2 < 0 AC-B^2<0 AC−B2<0,则 ( x 0 , y 0 ) (x_0,y_0) (x0,y0)不是极值点
条件极值
拉格朗日乘数法
z = f ( x , y ) z=f(x,y) z=f(x,y)在约束条件 φ ( x , y ) = 0 \varphi(x,y)=0 φ(x,y)=0条件下
令 F = f ( x , y ) + λ φ ( x , y ) F=f(x,y)+\lambda\varphi(x,y) F=f(x,y)+λφ(x,y),由以下三个方程求出 ( x , y ) (x,y) (x,y)的值,并确定最优解
F x ′ = f x ′ + λ φ x ′ = 0 F'_x=f'_x+\lambda\varphi'_x=0 Fx′=fx′+λφx′=0
F y ′ = f y ′ + λ φ y ′ = 0 F'_y=f'_y+\lambda\varphi'_y=0 Fy′=fy′+λφy′=0
F λ ′ = φ ( x , y ) = 0 F'_\lambda=\varphi(x,y)=0 Fλ′=φ(x,y)=0
极大极小由实际问题决定
二重积分
单位正方形区域上的二重积分
lim m → ∞ n → ∞ 1 m n ∑ i = 1 m ∑ i = 1 n f ( i m , j n ) = ∬ D f ( x , y ) d x d y , D = { ( x , y ) ∣ 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 , 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 } \lim\limits_{m\to\infty \atop n\to\infty} \frac1{mn}\sum\limits_{i=1}^m \sum\limits_{i=1}^n f(\frac im, \frac jn)=\iint\limits_D f(x,y)\text dx\text dy, D=\{(x,y) | 0\leq x\leq1, 0\leq y\leq1\} n→∞m→∞limmn1i=1∑mi=1∑nf(mi,nj)=D∬f(x,y)dxdy,D={(x,y)∣0≤x≤1,0≤y≤1}
二重积分中值定理(新增考点)
∬ D f ( x , y ) d x d y = f ( ξ , η ) A \iint\limits_Df(x,y)\text dx\text dy=f(\xi, \eta)A D∬f(x,y)dxdy=f(ξ,η)A, A A A为区域的面积
特殊性质
- 关于 y = x y=x y=x对称的区域,被积函数 x x x和 y y y可以互换
- 关于 x x x轴对称的区域,被积函数是 y y y的积函数的项积分为 0 0 0,可以直接去掉;关于 y y y轴对称同理
极坐标系下的二重积分
令 x = r cos θ , y = r sin θ x=r\cos\theta, y=r\sin\theta x=rcosθ,y=rsinθ
∬ D f ( x , y ) d σ = ∫ α β d θ ∫ r 1 ( θ ) r 2 ( θ ) f ( r cos θ , r sin θ ) r d r \iint\limits_D f(x,y)\text d\sigma=\int_\alpha^\beta\text d\theta\int_{r_1(\theta)}^{r_2(\theta)}f(r\cos\theta,r\sin\theta)r\text dr D∬f(x,y)dσ=∫αβdθ∫r1(θ)r2(θ)f(rcosθ,rsinθ)rdr
极坐标系下 d σ = r d r d θ \text d\sigma=r\text dr\text d\theta dσ=rdrdθ
几何应用
柱体体积
V = ∬ D x y ∣ z ( x , y ) ∣ d σ V=\iint\limits_{Dxy}|z(x, y)|\ d\sigma V=Dxy∬∣z(x,y)∣ dσ
总质量
m = ∬ D ρ ( x , y ) σ m=\iint\limits_D \rho(x, y)\sigma m=D∬ρ(x,y)σ
微分方程
一阶
(可分离变量)能写成 y ′ = f ( x ) ⋅ g ( y ) y'=f(x)\cdot g(y) y′=f(x)⋅g(y),直接分离变量
(齐次微分方程)能写成 y ′ = f ( y x ) y'=f(\frac yx) y′=f(xy)或 y ′ = f ( x y ) y'=f(\frac xy) y′=f(yx),令 u = y x u=\frac yx u=xy , d y d x = u + x d u d x \frac{\text dy}{\text dx} = u + x \frac{\text du}{\text dx} dxdy=u+xdxdu,或令 u = x y u=\frac xy u=yx , x x x当作 y y y的函数, d x d y = u + y d u d y \frac{\text dx}{\text dy} = u + y \frac{\text du}{\text dy} dydx=u+ydydu
(一阶齐次线性)能写成 y ′ + p ( x ) y = 0 y'+p(x)y=0 y′+p(x)y=0,用公式法: y = C e − ∫ p ( x ) d x y=Ce^{-\int p(x)\text dx} y=Ce−∫p(x)dx
(一阶非齐次线性)能写成 y ′ + p ( x ) y = q ( x ) y'+p(x)y=q(x) y′+p(x)y=q(x),用公式法: y = e − ∫ p ( x ) d x [ ∫ e ∫ p ( x ) d x q ( x ) d x + C ] y=e^{-\int p(x)\text dx}[\int e^{\int p(x)\text dx}q(x)\text dx + C] y=e−∫p(x)dx[∫e∫p(x)dxq(x)dx+C]
能写成 y ′ = f ( a x + b y + c ) y'=f(ax+by+c) y′=f(ax+by+c),令 u = a x + b y + c u=ax+by+c u=ax+by+c
二阶可降阶
不显含 y y y,令 y ′ = p y'=p y′=p, y ′ ′ = d p d x y''=\frac{dp}{dx} y′′=dxdp;或者先当作一阶把 y ′ y' y′解出来
不显含 x x x,令 y ′ = p y'=p y′=p, y ′ ′ = d p d y p y''=\frac{dp}{dy}p y′′=dydpp
二阶常系数线性
(1) 二阶常系数齐次线性: y ′ ′ + p y ′ + q y = 0 y''+py'+qy=0 y′′+py′+qy=0
(2) 二阶常系数非齐次线性: y ′ ′ + p y ′ + q y = f ( x ) y''+py'+qy=f(x) y′′+py′+qy=f(x)
齐次的通解
特征方程: λ 2 + p λ + q = 0 \lambda^2+p\lambda+q=0 λ2+pλ+q=0
若 p 2 − 4 q > 0 p^2-4q>0 p2−4q>0, y = C 1 e λ 1 x + C 2 e λ 2 x y=C_1e^{\lambda_1x}+C_2e^{\lambda_2x} y=C1eλ1x+C2eλ2x
若 p 2 − 4 q = 0 p^2-4q=0 p2−4q=0, y = ( C 1 + C 2 x ) e λ x y=(C_1+C_2x)e^{\lambda x} y=(C1+C2x)eλx
若 p 2 − 4 q < 0 p^2-4q<0 p2−4q<0, y = e α x ( C 1 cos β x + C 2 sin β x ) y=e^{\alpha x}(C_1\cos\beta x+C_2\sin \beta x) y=eαx(C1cosβx+C2sinβx), α , β \alpha, \beta α,β是实部和虚部
非齐次的特解
当自由项 f ( x ) = P n ( x ) e α x f(x)=P_n(x)e^{\alpha x} f(x)=Pn(x)eαx时,特解设为 y ∗ = x k Q n ( x ) e α x y^*=x^kQ_n(x)e^{\alpha x} y∗=xkQn(x)eαx, k k k为与 α \alpha α相同的 λ \lambda λ的个数(无实根就是0), Q Q Q是与 P P P最高次数相同的待定系数多项式
当自由项 f ( x ) = e α x [ P m ( x ) cos β x + P n ( x ) sin β x ] f(x)=e^{\alpha x}[P_m(x)\cos\beta x+P_n(x)\sin \beta x] f(x)=eαx[Pm(x)cosβx+Pn(x)sinβx]时,特解设为 y ∗ = e α x [ Q l ( 1 ) ( x ) cos β x + Q l ( 2 ) ( x ) sin β x ] x k y^*=e^{\alpha x}[Q_l^{(1)}(x)\cos\beta x+Q_l^{(2)}(x)\sin\beta x]x^k y∗=eαx[Ql(1)(x)cosβx+Ql(2)(x)sinβx]xk, l = max { m , n } l=\max\{m, n\} l=max{m,n}, k k k取决于 α ± β i \alpha\pm\beta i α±βi是否为特征根,是则为1
非齐次的通解
非齐次的通解=齐次的通解+非齐次的特解
高阶
通解
单实根: y = C e λ x y=Ce^{\lambda x} y=Ceλx
重实根: y = ( C 1 + C 2 x + C 3 x 2 + ⋯ + C k x k − 1 ) e λ x y=(C_1+C_2x+C_3x^2+\cdots+C_kx^{k-1})e^{\lambda x} y=(C1+C2x+C3x2+⋯+Ckxk−1)eλx(有高阶必有低阶)
单复根 α ± β i \alpha\pm\beta i α±βi: y = e a x ( C 1 cos β x + C 2 sin β x ) y=e^{ax}(C_1\cos\beta x+C_2\sin\beta x) y=eax(C1cosβx+C2sinβx)(成对出现)
行列式、矩阵、向量、线性方程组
拉普拉斯公式
∣ A O O B ∣ = ∣ A ∣ ∣ B ∣ \left|\begin{array}{cccc}A&O\\O&B\end{array}\right|=|A||B| ∣ ∣AOOB∣ ∣=∣A∣∣B∣
∣ O A B O ∣ = ( − 1 ) m n ∣ A ∣ ∣ B ∣ \left|\begin{array}{cccc}O&A\\B&O\end{array}\right|=(-1)^{mn}|A||B| ∣ ∣OBAO∣ ∣=(−1)mn∣A∣∣B∣
范德蒙行列式
∣ 1 1 ⋯ 1 x 1 x 2 ⋯ x n ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ x 1 n − 1 x 2 n − 1 ⋯ x n n − 1 ∣ = ∏ 1 ≤ i < j ≤ n ( x j − x i ) \left|\begin{array}{cccc}1&1&\cdots&1\\x_1&x_2&\cdots&x_n\\\cdots&\cdots&\cdots&\cdots\\x_1^{n-1}&x_2^{n-1}&\cdots&x_n^{n-1}\end{array}\right|=\prod\limits_{1\leq i<j\leq n}(x_j-x_i) ∣ ∣1x1⋯x1n−11x2⋯x2n−1⋯⋯⋯⋯1xn⋯xnn−1∣ ∣=1≤i<j≤n∏(xj−xi)
(所有下标大减下标小的乘积)
矩阵基本公式
记住几个基本的,其他可以推导
$AA*=A*A=|A|E $ , A ∗ = A − 1 ∣ A ∣ , A − 1 = A ∗ ∣ A ∣ , A^*=A^{-1}|A|, A^{-1}=\frac{A^*}{|A|} ,A∗=A−1∣A∣,A−1=∣A∣A∗
( k A ) ∗ = k n − 1 A ∗ , ( k A ) T = k A T , ( k A ) − 1 = 1 k A − 1 , ∣ k A ∣ = k n ∣ A ∣ (kA)^*=k^{n-1}A^*, (kA)^T=kA^T, (kA)^{-1}=\frac1kA^{-1}, |kA|=k^n|A| (kA)∗=kn−1A∗,(kA)T=kAT,(kA)−1=k1A−1,∣kA∣=kn∣A∣
( A B ) ∗ = B ∗ A ∗ , ( A B ) T = B T A T , ( A B ) − 1 = B − 1 A − 1 (AB)^*=B^*A^*, (AB)^T=B^TA^T, (AB)^{-1}=B^{-1}A^{-1} (AB)∗=B∗A∗,(AB)T=BTAT,(AB)−1=B−1A−1
( A ∗ ) − 1 = ( A − 1 ) ∗ , ( A ∗ ) T = ( A T ) ∗ , ( A T ) − 1 = ( A − 1 ) T (A^*)^{-1}=(A^{-1})^*, (A^*)^T=(A^T)^*, (A^T)^{-1}=(A^{-1})^T (A∗)−1=(A−1)∗,(A∗)T=(AT)∗,(AT)−1=(A−1)T
∣ A − 1 ∣ = 1 ∣ A ∣ |A^{-1}|=\frac1{|A|} ∣A−1∣=∣A∣1
∣ A ∗ ∣ = ∣ A ∣ n − 1 , ∣ ( A ∗ ) ∗ ∣ = ∣ A ∣ ( n − 1 ) 2 |A^*|=|A|^{n-1}, |(A^*)^*|=|A|^{(n-1)^2} ∣A∗∣=∣A∣n−1,∣(A∗)∗∣=∣A∣(n−1)2
( A ∗ ) ∗ = ∣ A ∣ n − 2 A (A^*)^*=|A|^{n-2}A (A∗)∗=∣A∣n−2A
伴随
伴随矩阵是代数余子矩阵的转置矩阵
[ A B C D ] \left[\begin{array}{cccc}A&B\\C&D\\\end{array}\right] [ACBD]的伴随矩阵是 [ D − B − C A ] \left[\begin{array}{cccc}D&-B\\-C&A\\\end{array}\right] [D−C−BA]
逆
可逆的充要条件:
- 行列式不为0
- 可表示为有限个初等矩阵相乘
- 秩为 n n n
- 特征值都不为0
方阵
[ A B C D ] [ X Y Z W ] = [ A X + B Z A Y + B W C X + D Z C Y + D W ] \left[\begin{array}{cccc}A&B\\C&D\\\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{cccc}X&Y\\Z&W\\\end{array}\right] = \left[\begin{array}{cccc}AX+BZ&AY+BW\\CX+DZ&CY+DW\\\end{array}\right] [ACBD][XZYW]=[AX+BZCX+DZAY+BWCY+DW]
[ O A B O ] k = ( − 1 ) m n ∣ A ∣ ∣ B ∣ \left[\begin{array}{cccc}O&A\\B&O\\\end{array}\right]^k=(-1)^{mn}|A||B| [OBAO]k=(−1)mn∣A∣∣B∣
[ A O O B ] k = [ A k O O B k ] \left[\begin{array}{cccc}A&O\\O&B\\\end{array}\right]^k=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}A^k&O\\O&B^k\\\end{array}\right] [AOOB]k=[AkOOBk]
[ B O D C ] − 1 = [ B − 1 O − C − 1 D B − 1 C − 1 ] \left[\begin{array}{cccc}B&O\\D&C\\\end{array}\right]^{-1}=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}B^{-1}&O\\-C^{-1}DB^{-1}&C^{-1}\\\end{array}\right] [BDOC]−1=[B−1−C−1DB−1OC−1]
[ B D O C ] − 1 = [ B − 1 − B − 1 D C − 1 O C − 1 ] \left[\begin{array}{cccc}B&D\\O&C\\\end{array}\right]^{-1}=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}B^{-1}&-B^{-1}DC^{-1}\\O&C^{-1}\\\end{array}\right] [BODC]−1=[B−1O−B−1DC−1C−1]
[ O B C D ] − 1 = [ − C − 1 D B − 1 C − 1 B − 1 O ] \left[\begin{array}{cccc}O&B\\C&D\\\end{array}\right]^{-1}=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}-C^{-1}DB^{-1}&C^{-1}\\B^{-1}&O\\\end{array}\right] [OCBD]−1=[−C−1DB−1B−1C−1O]
[ D B C O ] − 1 = [ O C − 1 B − 1 − B − 1 D C − 1 ] \left[\begin{array}{cccc}D&B\\C&O\\\end{array}\right]^{-1}=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}O&C^{-1}\\B^{-1}&-B^{-1}DC^{-1}\\\end{array}\right] [DCBO]−1=[OB−1C−1−B−1DC−1]
向量
性质:
( α , β ) = ( β , α ) = α T β = β T α (\alpha,\beta)=(\beta,\alpha)=\alpha^T\beta=\beta^T\alpha (α,β)=(β,α)=αTβ=βTα
( α , α ) = ∣ α ∣ 2 (\alpha,\alpha)=|\alpha|^2 (α,α)=∣α∣2
内积是对应的分量相乘再相加,内积等于0说明正交
方程个数少于未知数个数,也是线性相关
非零正交的向量两两之间线性无关
向量组等价:两组中的每个向量都能被另一组向量表示
秩
性质:
r ( A ) = r ( A T ) = r ( A A T ) = r ( A T A ) r(A)=r(A^T)=r(AA^T)=r(A^TA) r(A)=r(AT)=r(AAT)=r(ATA)
r ( A + B ) ≤ r ( A ) + r ( B ) r(A+B)\leq r(A)+r(B) r(A+B)≤r(A)+r(B)
r ( α α T ) = 1 r(\alpha\alpha^T)=1 r(ααT)=1
r ( A B ) ≤ min { r ( A ) , r ( B ) } r(AB)\leq\min\{r(A), r(B)\} r(AB)≤min{r(A),r(B)}
max { r ( A ) , r ( B ) } ≤ r ( A , B ) ≤ r ( A ) + r ( B ) \text{max}\{r(A),r(B)\}\leq r(A,B)\leq r(A)+r(B) max{r(A),r(B)}≤r(A,B)≤r(A)+r(B)
若 A A A可逆,则 r ( A B ) = r ( B ) , r ( B A ) = r ( B ) r(AB)=r(B), r(BA)=r(B) r(AB)=r(B),r(BA)=r(B)
【重要】 若 A m × n B n × s = O A_{m\times n}B_{n\times s}=O Am×nBn×s=O,则 r ( A ) + r ( B ) ≤ n r(A)+r(B)\leq n r(A)+r(B)≤n ( B B B看作未知数,解空间维度 ≤ n − r ( A ) \leq n-r(A) ≤n−r(A))
当 r ( A ) = n r(A)=n r(A)=n时, r ( A ∗ ) = n r(A^*)=n r(A∗)=n
当 r ( A ) = n − 1 r(A)=n-1 r(A)=n−1时, r ( A ∗ ) = 1 r(A^*)=1 r(A∗)=1
当 r ( A ) < n − 1 r(A)<n-1 r(A)<n−1时, r ( A ∗ ) = 0 r(A^*)=0 r(A∗)=0
相似理论、二次型
特征值与特征向量
特征值与特征向量的定义: A α = λ α A\alpha=\lambda\alpha Aα=λα
求特征值: ∣ λ E − A ∣ = 0 |\lambda E-A|=0 ∣λE−A∣=0
特征值不一定是实数
n n n阶行列式有 n n n个特征值(特征值可能是多重的)
一个矩阵的多个特征值对应的特征向量线性无关(仅取基础解系)(多重特征值不一定有多个特征向量)
矩阵 | A A A | k A kA kA | A k A^k Ak | f ( A ) f(A) f(A) | A − 1 A^{-1} A−1 | A ∗ A^* A∗ | P − 1 P^{-1} P−1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
特征值 | λ \lambda λ | k λ k\lambda kλ | λ k \lambda^k λk | f ( λ ) f(\lambda) f(λ) | 1 λ \frac1\lambda λ1 | $\frac{ | A |
对应的特征向量 | ξ \xi ξ | ξ \xi ξ | ξ \xi ξ | ξ \xi ξ | ξ \xi ξ | ξ \xi ξ | P − 1 ξ P^{-1}\xi P−1ξ |
特征值的性质:
- 特征值之积等于行列式
- 特征值之和等于迹
- 可逆矩阵每个特征值都不等于0(特征值之积等于行列式,可逆矩阵行列式不等于0)
相似
相似的定义: P − 1 A P = B P^{-1}AP=B P−1AP=B,则 A , B A,B A,B相似,记作 A ∼ B A\sim B A∼B
相似的性质:
A ∼ B ⇒ A\sim B\Rightarrow A∼B⇒
- λ A = λ B \lambda_A=\lambda_B λA=λB ( ∣ λ E − A ∣ = ∣ λ E − B ∣ |\lambda E-A|=|\lambda E-B| ∣λE−A∣=∣λE−B∣)
- ∣ A ∣ = ∣ B ∣ |A|=|B| ∣A∣=∣B∣ (特征值相同,特征值之积等于行列式)
- tr ( A ) = tr ( B ) \text{tr}(A)=\text{tr}(B) tr(A)=tr(B) (特征值相同,特征值之和等于迹)
- r ( A ) = r ( B ) r(A)=r(B) r(A)=r(B) (乘以可逆矩阵,秩不变)
实对称矩阵
定义: A = A T A=A^T A=AT
实对称矩阵的性质:
- 实对称矩阵特征向量是实数
- 实对称矩不同特征值对应的特征向量正交
- 一定可以相似对角化(一定有n个线性无关的特征向量)
- 实对称矩阵之间进行运算,得到的结果还是实对称矩阵
实对称矩阵相似的充要条件:特征值相同
相似对角化
相似对角化就是找相似的对角矩阵
可相似对角化的充要条件是存在n个线性无关的特征向量
正交向量
定义: ( α , β ) = 0 (\alpha,\beta)=0 (α,β)=0,则 α , β \alpha,\beta α,β正交
施密特正交化
β 1 = α 1 \beta_1=\alpha_1 β1=α1
β 2 = α 2 − ( α 2 , β 1 ) ( β 1 , β 1 ) β 1 \beta_2=\alpha_2-\frac{(\alpha_2,\beta_1)}{(\beta_1,\beta_1)}\beta_1 β2=α2−(β1,β1)(α2,β1)β1
β 3 = α 3 − ( α 3 , β 1 ) ( β 1 , β 1 ) β 1 − ( α 3 , β 2 ) ( β 2 , β 2 ) β 2 \beta_3=\alpha_3-\frac{(\alpha_3,\beta_1)}{(\beta_1,\beta_1)}\beta_1 - \frac{(\alpha_3,\beta_2)}{(\beta_2,\beta_2)}\beta_2 β3=α3−(β1,β1)(α3,β1)β1−(β2,β2)(α3,β2)β2
β n = α n − ( α n , β 1 ) ( β 1 , β 1 ) β 1 − ⋯ − ( α n , β n − 1 ) ( β n − 1 , β n − 1 ) β n − 1 \beta_n=\alpha_n-\frac{(\alpha_n,\beta_1)}{(\beta_1,\beta_1)}\beta_1 - \cdots - \frac{(\alpha_n,\beta_{n-1})}{(\beta_{n-1},\beta_{n-1})}\beta_{n-1} βn=αn−(β1,β1)(αn,β1)β1−⋯−(βn−1,βn−1)(αn,βn−1)βn−1
单位化(规范化)
γ 1 = 1 ∣ β 1 ∣ β 1 , ⋯ , γ n = 1 ∣ β n ∣ β n \gamma_1=\frac1{|\beta_1|}\beta_1, \cdots, \gamma_n=\frac1{|\beta_n|}\beta_n γ1=∣β1∣1β1,⋯,γn=∣βn∣1βn
施密特正交后得到的向量仍然是原来的特征值对应的特征向量
(施密特变换后仍然在特征子空间之内)
同一个特征值对应的特征向量正交化后得到的向量仍然是特征向量,但不用特征值对应的特征向量正交化后得到的向量不再是特征向量
https://www.zhihu.com/question/406817438/answer/1343293191
实对称矩阵相似对角单位化后,还可以使 P P P正交单位化
正交矩阵
定义: A T A = E A^TA=E ATA=E,则 A A A是正交矩阵
(矩阵中的向量两两正交且规范)
性质:
- A − 1 = A T A^{-1}=A^T A−1=AT ( A T A = E , A − 1 A = E A^TA=E, A^{-1}A=E ATA=E,A−1A=E)
- 行列式等于 ± 1 \pm1 ±1 ( ∣ A T ∣ ∣ A ∣ = 1 , ∣ A ∣ 2 = 1 |A^T||A|=1, |A|^2=1 ∣AT∣∣A∣=1,∣A∣2=1)
- 特征值等于 ± 1 \pm1 ±1
二次型
标准二次型:对角阵
配方法
正交变换法
与实对称矩阵相似对角化类似, Q − 1 A Q = B , Q − 1 = Q T , Q T A Q = B Q^{-1}AQ=B,Q^{-1}=Q^T,Q^TAQ=B Q−1AQ=B,Q−1=QT,QTAQ=B
正定
定义: ∀ x ≠ 0 , X T A X > 0 \forall x\not=0, X^TAX>0 ∀x=0,XTAX>0
性质:
- X T A X ≥ 0 X^TAX\geq0 XTAX≥0
- X T A X = 0 X^TAX=0 XTAX=0当且仅当 X = 0 X=0 X=0
充要条件:
- 所有特征值大于0
- 顺序主子式大于0
- …
合同
合同的定义: P T A P = B P^TAP=B PTAP=B,则 A , B A,B A,B合同,记作 A ≃ B A\simeq B A≃B
合同矩阵的性质:惯性指数相同
实对称矩阵合同的充要条件: A , B A, B A,B正负特征值的个数相同