人机交互概念梳理

1. PACT交互设计框架

人在什么环境下使用什么完成了什么活动
people, activities, context, technologies
http://www.woshipm.com/ucd/439894.html

2. seven stage model of interaction

This picture shows the Norman’s interaction model, an example can be drawn as:
Someone is reading a book at room, he feels too dark and wants some light on the book. There is a lamp on the desk.
So, the goal is to get more light on the book, which makes an intension of switching the lamp on the desk. He generates an action specification of reaching over and press the lamp switch, then he does these actions in execution step. After that he feels the room is becoming bright, he knows the light is on, these are steps of perception and interpretation. Finally, he does an evaluation to check if the light is bright enough to meets the goal, if does, the cycle ends. If not, he will make a new intention to iterate again.
所以，目标是为了让书更明亮，这就产生了意图切换桌子上的灯。他生成伸手按下灯开关的动作说明，然后在执行步骤中执行这些动作。之后他觉得房间变得明亮了，他知道灯亮了，这是感知和解读的步骤。最后，他进行评估以检查光线是否足够亮，以满足目标，如果是，则周期结束。如果不是，他会有一个新的意图再次迭代。

3. development methodologies (中方PPT 4-1DesignMethods 和 外方PPT (3)

3.1 waterfall lifecycle

problems:
1: Real projects are not sequential in the rigid way that this model assumes, but in a different order with iteration.
2: It is not possible to elicit or identify all the requirements at the start of the project because of unpredictable changes.
3: It is often expensive to correct design and coding errors in the late process of testing and maintenance.
问题：
1：实际的项目并不是按照该模型假设的严格顺序执行的，而是以不同的顺序进行迭代。
2：由于不可预测的变化，不可能在项目开始时征求或确定所有的需求。
3：在后期的测试和维护过程中。纠正设计和编码错误的成本往往很高。

advantage：
1: It provides a comprehensive template (as basic building blcoks) in which many important aspects of design can be placed.
2: It provides generic steps that are found in most software engineering paradigms.
3: It is the most widely used model at least in large software project.
4: It is good for planed and distributed design.
优势:
1:它提供了一个综合的模板(作为基本的建筑块)，可以放置许多重要的设计方面。
2:它提供了在大多数软件工程范例中可以找到的通用步骤。
3:至少在大型软件项目中，它是使用最广泛的模型。
4:适合平面和分布式设计。

3.2 prototyping

Lo-Fi, Thrown away prototype: to initiate user interest (such as in PD), develop builder skills, to reduce risk and investment (sketched, storyboard, wireframe). Hi-Fi, Evolving prototype: Adaptive, prototype to be product (Co-operative, Embryonic ).
Lo-Fi，扔掉原型：激发用户兴趣（例如在 PD 中），培养构建者技能，降低风险和投资（草图、故事板、线框）。
Hi-Fi，进化原型：自适应，原型成为产品（合作，胚胎）。

step:

1. requirements gathering: overall objectives of the system, and some known requirement.
2. quick design: focuses on the design of interface.
3. build prototype: build quickly.
4. evaluate and refine: to experience the prototype and eclict requirement more spevific.
5. engineer product: based on the prototype, the final product is engineered.
6. iteration: occurs at any stage.
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3.3 Prototyping for design has many complementary contributions to traditional lifecycle model.面向设计的原型设计对传统的生命周期模型有许多补充作用。

As the picture shows, waterfall can be seen as the engineer product phase in prototyping approach, which is mainly used to develop final product based on the requirements from prototyping approach. Traditional lifecycle model has few user feedbacks; thus, prototyping is added to improve communication with users to improve user centered.
Waterfall model provides a comprehensive template in which many important aspects of design can be placed. But it has problems, like it is impossible to define all the requirements at the beginning and it cost much to change the design or code of a system. The prototyping can be used as a complementary because the requirements can be defined clearer. Users give their opinions when they see the simple prototype which cost little. In this way, when we start to develop final product, the requirements are fixed, and users are more likely to accept it.
The feedback of every step makes us modify the system timely. And we can get the prototype in every level, we will not continue the next step until through the usability testing. Involve the users as much as possible in all stages of development.

如图所示，瀑布可以看作是原型方法中的工程师产品阶段，主要用于根据原型方法的要求开发最终产品。传统生命周期模型用户反馈少；因此，添加原型以改善与用户的沟通，以改善以用户为中心。
瀑布模型提供了一个综合模板，其中可以放置设计的许多重要方面。但是它也有问题，比如不可能一开始就定义所有的需求，改变一个系统的设计或代码成本很高。原型可以用作补充，因为可以更清晰地定义需求。用户在看到成本低的简单原型时发表意见。这样，当我们开始开发最终产品时，需求是固定的，用户更容易接受。
每一步的反馈使我们及时修改系统。并且我们可以得到各个级别的原型，直到通过可用性测试我们才会继续下一步。让用户尽可能多地参与到开发的所有阶段。

3.4 star life cycle development model

The points of the star are not ordered or connected in a sequence. A user interaction developer can theoretically start with almost any development activity and move on to almost any other one.
点不是按顺序排列或连接的。理论上，用户交互开发人员可以从几乎任何开发活动开始，然后转向几乎任何其他开发活动。
In requirements specification activity, people gather information, analyze the needs and generate detailed development requirement (usually in document)
requirements/specification: A requirement is a statement about an intended product that specifies what it should do or how it should perform.
In Evaluation, people evaluated the process and results of other activities with some methods, for example to check whether requirements are reasonable and complete, the design meets the requirements, etc.
Task analysis/ functional analysis: Task analysis is used mainly to investigate an existing situation. It is used to analyze the underlying rationale and purpose of what people are doing: what are they trying to achieve, why are they trying to achieve it, and how are they going about it?
Conceptual design/formal design形式化设计: Conceptual design involves producing the conceptual model for the product, and a conceptual model describes what the product should do, behave and look like.
Prototyping: Choose the types of prototypes and build quickly.
Implementation: construct a product.
在需求规范活动中，人们收集信息，分析需求并生成详细的开发需求（通常在文档中）
要求/规范：要求是关于预期产品的声明，指定它应该做什么或应该如何执行。
在评估中，人们通过一些方法对其他活动的过程和结果进行评估，例如检查需求是否合理完整，设计是否符合要求等。
**任务分析/功能分析：**任务分析主要用于调查现有情况。它用于分析人们正在做的事情的基本原理和目的：他们试图实现什么，他们为什么要实现它，以及他们是如何实现的？
概念设计/形式化设计： 概念设计涉及为产品生成概念模型，概念模型描述了产品应该做什么、表现和外观。
原型设计： 选择原型类型并快速构建。
**实现：**构建一个产品。

3.5 agile

4. usability and measurement ( 外方(6) Usability engineering slide 11)

usability = ease of use

4.1 typical ways of measuring usability

Learnability: pick novice users of system, measure time to perform certain tasks.
Efficiency: pick expert users, measure time to perform typical tasks.
Memorability: pick casual users (away from system for certain time), measure time to perform typical tasks.
Errors: count minor and catastrophic errors made by users while performing some specified task.
Satisfaction: ask users’ subjective opinion (questionnaire, interview), after using system for important tasks.

5.design pricinples（中方1_2 usability 外方(6) Usability engineering）

1. Directness: operating objects directly or WYSWYG.
   Example: Deleting computer files by dragging them directly into the trash.
2. User control: system should be interactive quickly and easily, easy in and easy out.
   Example: Emergency exit function for a system.
3. Consistency: Consistency with the real world and consistency within and among applications.
   Example: The style of the website interface design is consistent.
4. Clarity: Design should be simple and clear.
   Example: The web pages should have some white blank, not contain too much content.
5. Aesthetics: pleasing appearance.
   Example: The UI of system should be good-looking not ugly.
6. Feedback: Quick feedback to user’s action by different kinds of ways.
   Example: The system must give a feedback to users if the latency over 10s.
7. Forgiveness: Allowing trial and error learning, regret or undo.
   Example: A system provides redo function to allow users to go back when they do something wrong.
8. Awareness of human strengths and limitations: be careful about human perception, memory…
   Example: Giving some tips when users are inputting to help them recognize.
9. Allow quick way for experienced user: Help experienced users improve their efficiency.
   Example: System provides shortcuts to allow users use in a quick way.
10. Provide navigation support:
    Example: A web site should provide a navigation bar to help users find the modules they are interested in.

To enhence usability, pay attention to the following design principles

• affordance
• visibility
• feedback
• constaints
• mapping
• mental model
  参考https://www.jianshu.com/p/ad8b3d3c038e

6. user experience （(6）usability engineering slide 24)

7. memory and learning language (外方 (5)cognitive theory)

1. short-term memory 7±2

2. long-term memory 100 million items

8. activity analysis ((7) work and context study slide 18)

9. user centred design

design should focus on the user
What is the UCD methodology? It is characterised by the following 4 components:
User Centric not data or technology centric. Involve the users as much as possible in all stages of development.
Highly Iterative Design making use of Prototypes
Highly Interdisciplinary Draw on knowledge from multiple areas, like psychology, etc.
Empirical Measurement. Set goals and measure progress. Focus on ease of learning and ease of use. Testing of prototypes with actual users.

Studies how users interact with computer systems.
Develop methods for determining user s needs.
User characteristics influence screen design.
Develops understanding of users perceptions/ability.
Emphasis on usability
研究用户如何与计算机系统交互。
开发确定用户需求的方法。
用户特征影响屏幕设计。
培养对用户感知/能力的理解。
强调可用性

10. task analysis (外方(7) work task and context study 中方 4-3 )

a task is a human activity designed to achieve some goals

1. identify tasks
2. select task scenarios
3. tasks modelling
4. context analysis

10.1 HTA - hierarchical task analysis (task analysis and task structure)

旁边记得写goal, plan

10.2 GOMS - goals, operators, methods, selection rules (中方 PPT4-3 slide 21）

Goals: Symbolic structure that define a state of affairs to be achieved and determine a set of possible methods by which it may be accomplished.
Operators: these are elementary perceptual, motor or cognitive acts whose execution is necessary to change any aspects of the users mental state or to affect the task environment.
Methods: methods are descriptions of procedures for achieving goals. They are conditional sequences of goals and operators. Selection Rules: There are maybe more than one methods for achieving a give goal. The selection rules handle the process of choosing between methods, in the form of IF X THAN M.

目标： 符号结构，用于定义要实现的事态并确定一组可能的方法来实现它。
**操作员：这些是基本的知觉、运动或认知行为，其执行对于改变用户心理状态的任何方面或影响任务环境都是必要的。
方法： 方法是对实现目标的程序的描述。它们是目标和操作符的条件序列。
** 选择规则： 实现给定目标的方法可能不止一种。选择规则以 IF X THAN M 的形式处理在方法之间进行选择的过程。

11. evalution (外方 (4)system evaluation)

11.1 purpose

Backward: to determine the effectiveness of the system
Forward: to provide a means for suggesting improvement

11.2 Evaluation method

Analytic evaluation uses formal or semi-formal interface description to predict user performance.
Expert evaluation involves experts in assessing an interface.
Observational evaluation involves observing or monitoring users behaviour while they are using an system.
Survey evaluation seeks to elicit users subjective opinions of the system.
Experimental evaluation uses scientific experimental practice to test hypotheses about the system.

分析评估使用正式或半正式的界面描述来预测用户性能。
专家评测专家参与界面评测。
观察性评估是指观察或监控用户在使用系统时的行为。
调查评估旨在了解用户对系统的主观意见。
实验评估用科学的实验实践来检验关于系统的假设。

usability is an important goal for evaluation. Provide a tree diagram to describe the usability in context of system acceptability and tell how to measure the usability variables. 可用性是评估的重要目标。提供一个树图来描述系统可接受性上下文中的可用性，并说明如何测量可用性变量。

learnability: pick novice of system, measure time to perform certain tasks. Distinguish between no/some general computer experience.
Efficiency: decide definitions of expertise, get sample expert users(difficult), measure time to perform typical tasks
Memorability: get samples casual users (away from system for certain time) measure time to perform typical tasks.
Errors: count minor and catastrophic errors made while performing some specified task.
Satisfaction: ask user’s subjective opinion (questionnaire, interview) after trying system for real task
可学习性：挑选系统新手，测量执行某些任务的时间。区分没有/一些一般的计算机经验。
效率：确定专业知识的定义，获取样本专家用户（困难的），测量执行典型任务的时间
可记忆性：获取样本临时用户（离开系统一段时间）测量执行典型任务的时间。
错误：计算在执行某些指定任务时发生的轻微和灾难性错误。
满意度：在尝试系统实际任务后询问用户的主观意见（问卷、访谈）

12. Knowing the users is very important for the design of interactive system in the very beginning please tell in what ways you can do this user study (method for user study) and also develop your idea why the way is good or not in what context.

1. Interview
   Interviewee several key users face-to-face. When separated from users, direct communication can understand the real needs of customers; When spend lots of time on interviews instead designing, it is not worthwhile.
2. Questionnaires
   Design questionnaires and distribute them to users, finally collect and analyze them. This is a good approach when users are distributed over a wide range, whereas it is not appropriate for a specific small range.
3. Observation
   Observe the user’s behavior and actions when they use the system. When an accurate result is needed, it is a good idea to do observation.

13. Name two difference between working and long-term memory

1. capacity: The working memory is limited, about 7±2 items；Long term memory is much larger which can store about 100 million items.
2. Time: The working memory is present and temporary, but long-term memory is permanent.

14. What kinds of knowledge we have and by what way we can effectively learn them

1. Experience (learning by doing, prototyping)
2. Production rule:(by If…then)
3. Distributed network (using the network, from the Internet)
4. Recall and recognition (by recalling the things we have learned and recognize the new things we face)
5. Context (from books)

15. Tell the three time limits for feedback in design of interactive system ,and what you can do if the system cannot meet the time limit？

• 0.1 second, no special feedback is necessary except to display the result.
• 1.0 second is about the limit for the user’s flow of thought to stay uninterrupted, normally no special feedback necessary, too.
• 10 seconds is about the limit for keeping the user’s attention focused on the dialogue. For longer delays, users will want to perform other tasks while waiting for the computer to finish, so they should be given feedback to show when the computer expects to be done.

16. Describe characteristics of human memories based on the multiple structure of memory, and accordingly to reflect how to learn/study effectively.

Humans will forget their knowledge after they study, and they will forget it very quickly at the beginning, this is happened where we called short-term memory. The speed of forgetting will slow down with the passage of time.
According to the characteristics of human memory, we should review the knowledge when learning effect approaching 80%. In this way, short-term memory can turn to long-term memory, finally we can remember more knowledge.
人类学习后会忘记他们的知识，而且他们一开始会很快忘记，这就是我们所说的短期记忆。遗忘的速度会随着时间的推移而减慢。
根据人类记忆的特点，当学习效果接近80%时，我们应该复习知识。这样，短时记忆就可以变成长时记忆，最终我们可以记住更多的知识。

17. Please describe the different types of interactive systems within the application context

1. Life-Critical systems
   Examples: control of air traffic, nuclear reactor, power utilities, police or fire dispatch, military operation, and medical instruments
2. Industrial and commercial uses
   Examples: banking, insurance, order entry, inventory management, airline and hotel reservations, car rentals, credit card management, point-of -sales terminals
3. Office, home, and entertainment
   Examples: word processing, automated transaction machines, video games, education packages, information retrieval, e-mail, tel-conference., some examples: Iphone, the Nintendo WII, Virtual world, I Robot, Facebook
   4.Explorative, strategic, creative, and co-operative systems
   Example: Business decision making, architecture design, CSCW, artist program, games, and music composition

18. As a designer, what should you pay most attention to the design go targeted interactive system

In interactive system, it is important to pay most attention to users. User-centered design is based upon a user’s: abilities and needs, context, work and tasks. Only in this way can we design good interactive system.
在交互系统中，最重要的是关注用户。以用户为中心的设计基于用户的：能力和需求、环境、工作和任务。只有这样才能设计出好的交互系统。

19. What type of the system in your project work designed or evaluated according to the above? why?

The system we evaluated is an Industrial and commercial uses system.

20. You have been asked to design an interactive information system for the cycle path network that is to run through parts of your town. The aim of the system is to provide information on direction and distances for leisure cyclists to the main points of interest in the town.

(1) Please describe your project development plan. You should detail what sort of requirement work will be needed to understand the domain, the people or skill that will be needed in the project team.
Answer:系统任务，环境分析，人员安排
Goal:
Provide information on direction and distances for leisure cyclists to the main points of interest in the town.
Task analysis:

1. select interest of the town
2. select the place you want from leisure cyclists
3. find direction and distances
   Environment analysis:
4. investigate all interests in the town
5. investigate all entertainment places in the town
6. investigate distances and directions between interests and entertainment places
   People needed:
7. users (people lived in the town and visitors)
8. project manager
9. software developer
10. market manager
    (2) The development methods that will be taken in design this system.
    Answer:
    I will use prototyping lifecycle to implement this system. After each part of the development, I will communicate with users to conduct user-centered design.
    

21. Miscellaneous

1. Activity
   An activity is a specific behavior.
2. Interaction:
   Communication between human and computers (input\output, feedback)
3. Usability:
   Ease of use (efficiency, errors, learnability, memorability, satisfactory)
4. Tasks:
   A task is a human activity designed to achieve some goals, e.g., checking credit, finding destination, shipping product, etc.

1.In the development process of an interactive system, the designer must always take a leading role to the process.
Answer: F, the designer not always take a leading role to the process.
2.Prototyping can be used together with waterfall model
Answer: T
3.Evaluation can be done only when the system is completed
Answer: F, evaluation can be done during designing.
4.The users always know what they want to have for the designed system
Answer: F, the users don’t always know what they want to have for the designed system
5.Knowledge can be stored only in the head
Answer: F, Knowledge can also be stored in notebook.