线性代数 02.02 矩阵的运算

$\color{blue}{\S 第二章 第二节 矩阵的运算}$

$\color{blue}{一、矩阵的加法}$

1、定义
$定义2.设有两个m \times n矩阵 A = (a_{ij}), B = (b_{ij}),\\ 那么矩阵A与B的和记作A + B,规定为\\$
$A + B = \begin{pmatrix} a_{11} + b_{11} & a_{12} + b_{12} & \cdots & a_{1n} + b_{1n} \\ a_{21} + b_{21} & a_{22} + b_{22} & \cdots & a_{2n} + b_{2n} \\ \vdots & \vdots & & \vdots \\ a_{m1} + b_{m1} & a_{m2} + b_{m2} & \cdots & a_{mn} + b_{mn} \\ \end{pmatrix}$

说明：①.矩阵必须同型;②.对应位置的元素相加.
矩阵的减法：A - B = A + (-B)

2.运算律
$矩阵的加法满足下列运算律，设A、B、C都是m \times n矩阵:$
1)A + B = B + A
2)(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
3) A + (-A) = A - A = 0

$\color{blue}{二、数与矩阵相乘}$

1.定义
$定义3.数\lambda与矩阵的乘积,记作\lambda A或A \lambda,规定为$
$\lambda A = A \lambda = \begin{pmatrix} \lambda a_{11} & \lambda a_{12} & \cdots & \lambda a_{1n} \\ \lambda a_{21} & \lambda a_{22} & \cdots & \lambda a_{2n} \\ \vdots & \vdots & & \vdots \\ \lambda a_{m1} & \lambda a_{m2} & \cdots & \lambda a_{mn} \\ \end{pmatrix}$

2.运算律
$数乘矩阵满足下列运算规律, \\ 设A、B为m \times n矩阵, \lambda、\mu为数:$
$1) (\lambda \mu) A = \lambda (\mu A)$
$2) (\lambda + \mu) A = \lambda A + \mu A$
$3) \lambda (A + B) = \lambda A + \lambda B$
$这样定义矩阵加法和数乘矩阵的运算,统称为矩阵的线性运算.$

$\color{blue}{三、矩阵与矩阵相乘}$

1.定义
$定义4.设A = (a_ {ij}) _ {m \times s}, B = (b_ {ij})_ {s \times n}矩阵,那么规定矩阵A\\与矩阵B的乘积是一个m \times n矩阵C = (c_{ij})_{m \times n}。其中 \\ c_{ij} = a_{i1}b_{1j} + a_{i2}b_{2j} + \cdots + a_{is}b_{sj}\\ = \sum_ {k =1}^{s}a_ {ik}b_ {kj}(i = 1, 2, \cdots, m; j = 1, 2, \cdots, n),\\ 即 A \times B = C.$

注意:
$\begin{pmatrix} a_{i1} & a_{i2} & \cdots & a_{is} \end{pmatrix} \times \begin{pmatrix} b_{1j} \\ b_{2j} \\ \vdots \\ b_{sj} \end{pmatrix} \\ = a_{i1}b_{1j} + a_{i2}b_{2j} + \cdots + a_{is}b_{sj} \\ = \sum_{k = 1}^{s} a_{ik}b_{kj} = c_{ij}$

例1.求矩阵
$A = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 & 3 & -1 \\ 2 & 1 & 0 & 2 \\ \end{pmatrix} 与 B = \begin{pmatrix} 4 & 1 & 0 \\ -1 & 1 & 3 \\ 2 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 3 & 4 \\ \end{pmatrix} 的乘积AB.$
$解: (相当于numpy里面的numpy.dot函数)\\ C = AB = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 & 3 & -1 \\ 2 & 1 & 0 & 2 \\ \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} 4 & 1 & 0 \\ -1 & 1 & 3 \\ 2 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 3 & 4 \\ \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} 9 & -2 & -1 \\ 9 & 9 & 11 \\ \end{pmatrix}$

例2.设矩阵
$A = \begin{pmatrix} -2 & 4 \\ 1 & -2 \\ \end{pmatrix} \quad B = \begin{pmatrix} 2 & 4 \\ -3 & -6 \\ \end{pmatrix} 求AB与BA$
$解: AB = \begin{pmatrix} -2 & 4 \\ 1 & -2 \\ \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} 2 & 4 \\ -3 & -6 \\ \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} -16 & -32 \\ 8 & 16 \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ BA = \begin{pmatrix} 2 & 4 \\ -3 & -6 \\ \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} -2 & 4 \\ 1 & -2 \\ \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 \\ \end{pmatrix}$

2.运算律
1)矩阵的乘法一般不满足交换律
2)(AB)C = A(BC)
$3)\lambda(AB) = A(\lambda B) (其中\lambda为数)$
$4)A(B + C) = AB + AC$
$(B+C)A = BA + CA$

3.设E为单位矩阵
$E_mA_{m \times n} = A_{m \times n},$
$A_{m \times n} E_n = A_{m \times n}$

4.方阵的幂运算
设A为n阶方阵,k,l为正整数
$1) AA \cdots A = A^k$
$2) A^k \cdot A^l = A^{k + l}$
$3) (A^k)^l = A^{kl}$
$注：一般说来(AB)^k \neq A^kB^k.$
如:
$A \times B = \begin{pmatrix} a_{11} & a_{12} & a_{13} & a_{14} \\ a_{21} & a_{22} & a_{23} & a_{24} \\ a_{31} & a_{32} & a_{33} & a_{34} \\ \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} b_{11} & b_{12} \\ b_{21} & b_{22} \\ b_{31} & b_{32} \\ b_{41} & b_{42} \\ \end{pmatrix} = C = (c_{ij})_{3 \times 2}$
$其中C_{i1}是向第i店所发产品的总值, C_{i2}是向第i\\ 店所发产品的总重量.C表示为向三个商店所发\\ 产品的总值及总重量所构成的矩阵.$

$又如.四个城市间的单向航线如下图所示:$
$① \ \leftrightarrow \ ②$
$\updownarrow \ \searrow \ \downarrow$
$③ \ \leftarrow \ ④$
$若令a_{ij} = \left \{ \begin{array}{l} 1 从i市到j市有一条单向航线 \\ 0 从i市到j市没有单向航线 \end{array} \right.$
$则图中的航线用矩阵表示为$
$A = \begin{pmatrix} 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ \end{pmatrix}$
$A^2 = \begin{pmatrix} 2 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 2 & 1 & 1 \\ \end{pmatrix}$
$则A^2表示从i市经过一次中转到j市的单向\\\\航线的条数构成的矩阵.$

$\color{blue}{四、矩阵的转置}$

1.定义
$定义5.把矩阵A的行换成同序数的列得到的矩阵,叫做A的转置矩阵,记作A^T。$
例如
$A = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 2 & 3 \\ 4 & 5 & 6 \\ \end{pmatrix} A^T = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 4 \\ 2 & 5 \\ 3 & 6 \\ \end{pmatrix}$

2.运算律
$1) (A^T)^T = A;$
$2) (A + B)^T = A^T + B^T;$
$3) (\lambda A)^T = \lambda A^T;$
$4) (AB)^T = B^TA^T;$
这里仅证明4)
$设A = (a_{ij})_{m \times s}, B = (b_{ij})_{s \times n}.$
$AB = C = (c_{ij})_{m \times n},$
$B^TA^T = D = (d_{ij})_{n \times m}$
$因为 c_{ji} = a_{j1}b_{1i} + a_{j2}b_{2i} + \cdots + a_{js}b_{si} \\ = b_{1i}a_{j1} + b_{2i}a_{j2} + \cdots + b_{si}a_{js} \\ = d_{ij} \\ (i = 1, 2, \cdots, n; j = 1, 2, \cdots, m) \\ 即D = C^T,也就是B^TA^T = (AB)^T.$

例3.已知
$A = \begin{pmatrix} 2 & 0 & -1 \\ 1 & 3 & 2 \\ \end{pmatrix} \quad B = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 7 & -1 \\ 4 & 2 & 3 \\ 2 & 0 & 1 \\ \end{pmatrix},求(AB)^T.$
$解: AB = \begin{pmatrix} 2 & 0 & -1 \\ 1 & 3 & 2 \\ \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 7 & -1 \\ 4 & 2 & 3 \\ 2 & 0 & 1 \\ \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} 0 & 14 & -3 \\ 17 & 13 & 10 \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ 所以 (AB)^T = \begin{pmatrix} 0 & 17 \\ 14 & 13 \\ -3 & 10 \\ \end{pmatrix}$

$有了转置矩阵的定义后，显然有\\ A为对称矩阵,则A = A^T;\\ A为反对称矩阵,则A^T = -A$

$例4.试证任意n阶方阵都可以分解为\\ 一个对称矩阵和一个反对称矩阵之和.$
$证: A = \dfrac{1}{2} (A + A + A^T - A^T) \\ = \dfrac{1}{2}(A + A^T + A - A^T) \\ = \dfrac{A + A^T}{2} + \dfrac{A - A^T}{2} \\ \because (\dfrac{A + A^T}{2})^T = \dfrac{A^T + (A^T)^T}{2} = \dfrac{A + A^T}{2} \\ \therefore \dfrac{A + A^T}{2}是对称矩阵.\\ \because (\dfrac{A - A^T}{2})^T = \dfrac{A^T - (A^T)^T}{2} = -\dfrac{A - A^T}{2} \\ \therefore \dfrac{A - A^T}{2}是反对称矩阵. \\ 故A等于对称矩阵\dfrac{A + A^T}{2}与反对称矩阵\dfrac{A - A^T}{2}之和.$

$例5.设列矩阵 X = \begin{pmatrix} x_1 \\ x_2 \\ \vdots \\ x_n \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ 满足X^T X = 1,E为n阶的单位矩阵,H = E - 2XX^T,\\ 证明:H是对称矩阵,且HH^T = E.$

$证明: H^T = (E - 2XX^T)^T \\ = E^T - 2(XX^T)^T \\ = E - 2[(X^T)^T] (X^T)\\ = E - 2XX^T \\ = H \\ \therefore H是对称矩阵\\ 因为 E是对角矩阵，满足交换律 \\ HH^T = H^2 = (E - 2XX^T)^2 \\ = E - 4XX^T + 4(XX^T)(XX^T) \\ = E - 4XX^T + 4X(X^TX)X^T \\ = E - 4XX^T + 4XX^T \\ = E$

$\color{blue}{五、方阵的行列式}$

1.定义
$定义6.由n阶方阵A的元素所构成的行列式(各元素的\\ 位置不变),称为方阵A的行列式,记作|A|或detA.$

2.运算律
$1). |A^T| = |A|;$
$2). |\lambda A| = \lambda^n |A|;$
$3). |AB| = |A||B|;(A、B必须都是方阵)$

$证明3),设A = (a_{ij}), B= (b_{ij})。记2n阶行列式$
$D = \begin{vmatrix} a_{11} & \cdots & a_{1n} & & & \\ \vdots & & \vdots & & 0 & \\\ a_{n1} & \cdots & a_{nn} & & & \\ -1 & & & b_{11} & \cdots & b_{1n} \\ & \ddots & & \vdots & & \vdots \\ & & -1 & b_{n1} & \cdots & b_{nn} \\ \end{vmatrix} = \begin{vmatrix} A & O \\ -E & B \\ \end{vmatrix}$
$显然,D = |A||B|,而在D中以b_{1j}乘第1列,\\ b_{2j}乘第2列, \cdots, b_{nj}乘第n列,都加到第n+j\\ 列上(j = 1, 2, \cdots, n),有$
$D=\\ \begin{vmatrix} a_{11} & a_{12} & \cdots &a_{1n} & a_{11}b_{11} + a_{12}b_{21} + \cdots + a_{1n}b_{n1} & \cdots & a_{11}b_{1n} + a_{12}b_{2n} + \cdots + a_{1n}b_{nn} \\ a_{21} & a_{22} & \cdots &a_{2n} & a_{21}b_{11} + a_{22}b_{21} + \cdots + a_{1n}b_{n1} & \cdots & a_{11}b_{1n} + a_{12}b_{2n} + \cdots + a_{1n}b_{nn} \\ \cdots & \cdots & \cdots &\cdots & \cdots & \cdots & \cdots \\ a_{n1} & a_{n2} & \cdots &a_{nn} & a_{n1}b_{11} + a_{n2}b_{21} + \cdots + a_{nn}b_{n1} & \cdots & a_{n1}b_{1n} + a_{n2}b_{2n} + \cdots + a_{nn}b_{nn} \\ -1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & & & \\ 0 & -1 & \cdots & 0 & & 0 & \\ 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & & & \\ 0 & 0 & \cdots & -1 & & & \\ \end{vmatrix} \\ = \begin{vmatrix} A & C \\ -E & 0 \\ \end{vmatrix} \\ 其中C = (c_{ij}), c_{ij} = a_{i1}b_{1j} + a_{i2}b_{2j} + \cdots + a_{in}b_{nj}, \\ 故 C = AB。 再对D的行作r_{j} \leftrightarrow r_{n+j}(j = 1, 2, \cdots, n), 有\\ D = (-1)^n \begin{vmatrix} -E & 0 \\ A & C \\ \end{vmatrix}, \\ 再把-E的每行提出一个(-1)公因子, \\ D = (-1)^n(-1)^n \begin{vmatrix} E & 0 \\ A & C \\ \end{vmatrix} \\ = \begin{vmatrix} E & 0 \\ A & C \\ \end{vmatrix} D = |EC| - |0A| = |C| = |AB| \\ 于是 |AB| = |A| |B|$

$例6.设A,B均为n阶方阵\\ 且AA^T = E, B^TB=E,\dfrac{|A|}{|B|} = -1,\\ 则|A + B | = 0.$
证:
$B^TB = E \rightarrow |B^TB| = 1 \\ \rightarrow |B^T||B| = 1 \\ \rightarrow |B^2| = 1 \\ |A + B| = |AE + EB| \\ = |AB^TB + AA^TB| \\ = |A(B^T + A^T)B| \\ = |A||(A + B)^T| |B| \\ = -|B|^2|A + B| \\ = -|A + B| \\ 2|A + B| = 0 \\ |A + B| = 0$

$例7.设A是n阶反对称矩阵,B是n阶对称矩阵,\\ 则AB + BA是n阶反对称矩阵.$
$证: (AB + BA)^T = (AB)^T + (BA)^T \\ = B^TA^T + A^TB^T \\ = -BA - AB \\ = -(AB + BA) \\ 所以,AB + BA为n阶反对称矩阵.$

$例8.设\alpha = \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 2 \\ 3 \\ \end{pmatrix}, \beta = \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ \frac{1}{2} \\ \frac{1}{3} \\ \end{pmatrix}, 令A = \alpha \beta^T,求A^n及|A^n|.$

$解:\\ A = \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 2 \\ 3 \\ \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} 1 & \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{3} \\ \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{3} \\ 2 & 1 & \frac{2}{3} \\ 3 & \frac{3}{2} & 1 \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ \beta^T \alpha = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & \frac{1}{2} &\frac{1}{3} \\ \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 2 \\ 3 \\ \end{pmatrix} = 3 \\ A^n = (\alpha \beta^T)^n = \alpha \beta^T \alpha \beta^T \cdots \alpha \beta^T \\ = 3^{n - 1} A |A^n| = |3^{n - 1}A| = (3^{n - 1})^n|A| \\ = (3^{n - 1})^n \begin{pmatrix} 1 & \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{3} \\ 2 & 1 & \frac{2}{3} \\ 3 & \frac{3}{2} & 1 \\ \end{pmatrix} = 0$

$\color{blue}{六、共轭矩阵}$

1.定义
$定义7.设A = (a_{ij})为复矩阵,\bar a_{ij}表示a_{ij}的共轭复数,记\\ \overline{A} = (\overline {a_{ij}}).$

2.运算律
$设A、B为复矩阵, \lambda为负数.\\ 1) \overline{A + B } = \bar A + \bar B; \\ 2) \overline{\lambda A} = \bar {\lambda} \bar{A}; \\ 3) \overline{AB} = \bar {A} \bar {B} .$

$\color{blue}{七、可换矩阵及方阵多项式}$

1.可换矩阵
设A、B均为方阵,若AB=BA, 则称是可换的.

$例9.设A = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 1 & -1 \\ \end{pmatrix}, B = \begin{pmatrix} a & b \\ 3 & 2 \\ \end{pmatrix},\\若矩阵A与B可换,求a,b的值.$
$解:由于AB = BA,即 \\ \begin{pmatrix} a + 6 & b + 4 \\ a - 3 & b -2 \\ \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} a + b & 2a - b \\ 5 & 4 \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ a = 8, b = 6$

$例10.设A = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 2 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 3 \\ \end{pmatrix},求与A可交换的所有矩阵$
$解:设 与A可交换的矩阵为X = \begin{pmatrix} x_1 & x_2 & x_3 \\ y_1 & y_2 & y_3 \\ z_1 & z_2 & z_3 \\ \end{pmatrix} \ 由AX = XA得\\ \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 2 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 3 \\ \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix} x_1 & x_2 & x_3 \\ y_1 & y_2 & y_3 \\ z_1 & z_2 & z_3 \\ \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} x_1 & x_2 & x_3 \\ y_1 & y_2 & y_3 \\ z_1 & z_2 & z_3 \\ \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 2 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 3 \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ 于是\\ \begin{pmatrix} x_1 & x_2 & x_3 \\ 2y_1 & 2y_2 & 2y_3 \\ 3z_1 & 3z_2 & 3z_3 \\ \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} x_1 & 2x_2 & 3x_3 \\ y_1 & 2y_2 & 3y_3 \\ z_1 & 2z_2 & 3z_3 \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ 从而\\ x_2 = 2x_2, x_3 = 3x_3, \\ 2y_1 = y_1, 2y_3 = 3y_3, \\ 3z_1 = z_1, 3z_2 = 2z_2, \\ 即 x_2 = x_3 = y_1 = y_3 = z_1 = z_2 = 0, \\ 所以,与A可交换的任一矩阵是\\ \begin{pmatrix} a & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & b & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & c \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ 其中a, b, c为任意实数.$

2.方阵的多项式
$设有n阶矩阵A和多项式 \\ f(\lambda) = a_m \lambda^m + a_{m - 1} \lambda^{m - 1} + \cdots + a_1 \lambda + a_0 \\ 规定\\ f(A) = a_m A^{m} + a_{m - 1}A^{m - 1} + \cdots + a_1 A + a_0 \\ 称f(A)为方阵A的矩阵多项式.$

$例11.设有多项式f(\lambda) = \lambda^2 -3\lambda + 2和矩阵A = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & -1 & 2 \\ 0 & 1 & -1 \\ 1 & 2 & 1 \\ \end{pmatrix},求f(A).$
$解:因为\\ A^2 = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & -1 & 2 \\ 0 & 1 & -1 \\ 1 & 2 & 1 \\ \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix} 1 & -1 & 2 \\ 0 & 1 & -1 \\ 1 & 2 & 1 \\ \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} 3 & 2 & 5 \\ -1 & -1 & -2 \\ 2 & 3 & 1 \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ 3A = 3 \begin{pmatrix} 1 & -1 & 2 \\ 0 & 1 & -1 \\ 1 & 2 & 1 \\ \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} 3 & -3 & 6 \\ 0 & 3 & -3 \\ 3 & 6 & 3 \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ 则f(A) = A^2 -3A + 2E \\ = \begin{pmatrix} 3 & 2 & 5 \\ -1 & -1 & -2 \\ 2 & 3 & 1 \\ \end{pmatrix} - \begin{pmatrix} 3 & -3 & 6 \\ 0 & 3 & -3 \\ 3 & 6 & 3 \\ \end{pmatrix} + \begin{pmatrix} 2 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 2 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 2 \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ = \begin{pmatrix} 2 & 5 & -1 \\ -1 & -2 & 1 \\ -1 & -3 & 0 \\ \end{pmatrix}$