同态与同构

定义

设$A=⟨S,{\ast }_1,{\ast }_2,\cdots ,{\ast }_n⟩$和$A^{\prime }=⟨S^{\prime },{\ast }_1^{\prime },{\ast }_2^{\prime },\cdots ,{\ast }_n^{\prime }⟩$是两个代数系统
若$\forall i\in N\left(1\le i\le N\right)$, ${\ast }_i$和${\ast }_i^{\prime }$是同阶运算，则称$A$和$A^{\prime }$是同型的

设$\ast$和${\ast }^{\prime }$分别是集合$S$，$S^{\prime }$上的$n$元运算，函数$h:S\to S^{\prime }$
若$\forall a_1,a_2,\cdots ,a_n\in S_{+}$，都有
$$h\left(\ast \left(a_1,a_2,\cdots ,a_n\right)\right)={\ast }^{\prime }\left(h\left(a_1\right),h\left(a_2\right),\cdots ,h\left(a_n\right)\right)$$
则称$h$关于$\ast$和${\ast }^{\prime }$保持运算

设$A=⟨S,{\ast }_1,{\ast }_2,\cdots ,{\ast }_n⟩$和$A^{\prime }=⟨S^{\prime },{\ast }_1^{\prime },{\ast }_2^{\prime },\cdots ,{\ast }_n^{\prime }⟩$是两个同型的代数系统，函数$h:S\to S^{\prime }$
若$\forall i\in N\left(1\le i\le N\right)$,$h$都关于${\ast }_i$和${\ast }_i^{\prime }$保持运算，则称$h$是$A$到$A^{\prime }$的同态映射，并称$A$和$A^{\prime }$是同态的，特别地
（1）若$h$是单射，则称$h$为单一同态
（2）若$h$是满射，则称$h$为满同态，记为$A\sim A^{\prime }$
（3）若$h$是双摄，则称$h$为同构映射，并称$A$和$A^{\prime }$是同构的，记为$A\cong A^{\prime }$
（4）若$A=A^{\prime }$，则称$h$为自同态
（5）若$A=A^{\prime }$，且$h$是双射的，则称$h$为自同构

定理1

设$f$是从$A=⟨S,{\ast }_1,{\ast }_2,\cdots ,{\ast }_n⟩$到$A^{\prime }=⟨S^{\prime },{\ast }_1^{\prime },{\ast }_2^{\prime },\cdots ,{\ast }_n^{\prime }⟩$的同态，
$g$是从$A^{\prime }=⟨S^{\prime },{\ast }_1^{\prime },{\ast }_2^{\prime },\cdots ,{\ast }_n^{\prime }⟩$到$A^{\prime \prime }=⟨S^{\prime \prime },{\ast }_1^{\prime \prime },{\ast }_2^{\prime \prime },\cdots ,{\ast }_n^{\prime \prime }⟩$的同态,
则$g\circ f$是从$A$到$A^{\prime \prime }$的同态

证明：$\forall i\in \mathbb{N}\left(1\le i\le n_i\right)$，$\forall a_1,a_2,\cdots ,a_n\in S$
(其中$n_i$是运算${\ast }_i$的阶)
$$\begin{array}{rl}& g\circ f\left({\ast }_i\left(a_1,a_2,\cdots ,a_{n_i}\right)\right)\\ =& g\left(f\left({\ast }_i\left(a_1,a_2,\cdots ,a_{n_i}\right)\right)\right)\\ =& g\left({\ast }_i^{\prime }\left(f\left(a_1\right),f\left(a_2\right),\cdots ,f\left(a_{n_i}\right)\right)\right)\\ =& {}_{\ast }^{\prime \prime }\left(g\left(f\left(a_1\right)\right),g\left(f\left(a_2\right)\right),\cdots ,g\left(f\left(a_{n_i}\right)\right)\right)\\ =& {}_{\ast }^{\prime \prime }\left(g\left(f\left(a_1\right)\right),g\left(f\left(a_2\right)\right),\cdots ,g\left(f\left(a_{n_i}\right)\right)\right)\end{array}$$
故$g\circ f$是从$A$到$A^{\prime \prime }$的同态

定理2

设$h$是从$A=⟨S,{\ast }_1,{\ast }_2,\cdots ,{\ast }_n⟩$到$A^{\prime }=⟨S^{\prime },{\ast }_1^{\prime },{\ast }_2^{\prime },\cdots ,{\ast }_n^{\prime }⟩$的同构，则$h^{-1}$是从$A^{\prime }$到$A$的同构

证明：

$\forall i\in \mathbb{N}\left(1\le i\le n_i\right)$，$\forall a_1,a_2,\cdots ,a_n\in S$
(其中$n_i$是运算${\ast }_i$的阶)
设$b_i=h\left(a_i\right)\in S^{\prime }$
由$h$双射，$h^{-1}\left(b_i\right)=a_i$
$$\begin{array}{rl}h\left({\ast }_i\left(a_1,a_2,\cdots ,a_{n_i}\right)\right)& ={\ast }_i^{\prime }\left(h\left(a_1\right),h\left(a_2\right),\cdots ,h\left(a_{n_i}\right)\right)\\ & ={\ast }_i^{\prime }\left(b_1,b_2,\cdots ,b_3\right)\end{array}$$
因此
$$\begin{array}{rl}{h}^{-1}\left({\ast }_i^{\prime }\left(b_1,b_2,\cdots ,b_3\right)\right)& ={\ast }_i\left(a_1,a_2,\cdots ,a_{n_i}\right)\\ & ={\ast }_i\left(h^{-1}\left(a_1\right),h^{-1}\left(a_2\right),\cdots ,h^{-1}\left(a_{n_i}\right)\right)\end{array}$$

故$h^{-1}$是从$A^{\prime }$到$A$的同构

定理3

设$h$是从$A=⟨S,{\ast }_1,{\ast }_2,\cdots ,{\ast }_n⟩$到$A^{\prime }=⟨S^{\prime },{\ast }_1^{\prime },{\ast }_2^{\prime },\cdots ,{\ast }_n^{\prime }⟩$的同态，则$h\left(A\right)=⟨h\left(S\right),{\ast }_1^{\prime },{\ast }_2^{\prime },\cdots ,{\ast }_n^{\prime }⟩$是$A^{\prime }$的子代数，称为$A$关于$h$的同态像

证明：
$\forall i\in \mathbb{N}\left(1\le i\le n\right)$，$\forall b_1,b_2,\cdots ,b_{n_i}\in h\left(S\right)$,
$\exists a_1,a_2,\cdots ,a_{n_i}\in S$，使得$h\left(a_k\right)=b_k$,于是
$$\begin{array}{rl}{\ast }_i^{\prime }\left(b_1,b_2,\cdots ,b_{n_i}\right)& ={\ast }_i^{\prime }\left(h\left(a_1\right),h\left(a_2\right),\cdots ,h\left(a_{n_i}\right)\right)\\ & =h\left({\ast }_i\left(a_1,a_2,\cdots ,a_n\right)\right)\in h\left(S\right)\end{array}$$
所以$h\left(S\right)$关于${\ast }_i^{\prime }$封闭，故$h\left(A\right)$是$A^{\prime }$的子代数

定理4

设$h$是从$A=⟨S,\ast ,+⟩$到$A^{\prime }=⟨S^{\prime },\stackrel{◯}{\ast },\stackrel{◯}{+}⟩$的满同态，$\ast$和$+$是$S$上的二元运算，则
（1）若$\ast$是可交换的，则$\stackrel{◯}{\ast }$也是可交换的
（2）若$\ast$是可结合的，则$\stackrel{◯}{\ast }$也是可结合的
（3）若$\ast$关于$+$是可分配的，则$\stackrel{◯}{\ast }$关于$\stackrel{◯}{+}$也是可分配的
（4）若$e$是关于$\ast$的单位元，则$h\left(e\right)$是关于$\stackrel{◯}{\ast }$的单位元
（5）若$0$是关于$\ast$的零元，则$h\left(0\right)$是关于$\stackrel{◯}{\ast }$的零元
（6）若$a\in S$关于$\ast$是可逆的 ，则$h\left(a\right)$关于$\stackrel{◯}{\ast }$是可逆的，且
$$h{\left(a\right)}^{-1}=h\left(a^{-1}\right)$$

证明：
（1）$\forall x,y\in S^{\prime }$，因为满射，所以$\exists a,b\in S$,使得$h\left(a\right)=x,h\left(b\right)=y$
$$h\left(a\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(b\right)=h\left(a\ast b\right)=h\left(b\ast a\right)=h\left(b\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(a\right)$$
故$\stackrel{◯}{\ast }$也是可交换的
（2）$\forall x,y,z\in S^{\prime }$,因为满射,所以$\exists a,b,c\in S$，使得$h\left(a\right)=x,h\left(b\right)=y,h\left(c\right)=z$
$$\begin{array}{rl}& \left(x\stackrel{◯}{\ast }y\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }z\\ =& \left(h\left(a\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(b\right)\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(c\right)\\ =& h\left(a\ast b\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(c\right)\\ =& h\left(\left(a\ast b\right)\ast c\right)\\ =& h\left(a\ast \left(b\ast c\right)\right)\\ =& h\left(a\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(b\ast c\right)\\ =& h\left(a\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }\left(h\left(b\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(c\right)\right)\\ =& x\stackrel{◯}{\ast }\left(y\stackrel{◯}{\ast }z\right)\end{array}$$
故$\stackrel{◯}{\ast }$也是可结合的
（3）$\forall x,y,z\in S^{\prime }$,因为满射,所以$\exists a,b,c\in S$，使得$h\left(a\right)=x,h\left(b\right)=y,h\left(c\right)=z$

$$\begin{array}{rl}& x\stackrel{◯}{\ast }\left(y\stackrel{◯}{+}z\right)\\ =& h\left(a\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }\left(h\left(b\right)\stackrel{◯}{+}h\left(c\right)\right)\\ =& h\left(a\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(b+c\right)\\ =& h\left(a\ast \left(b+c\right)\right)\\ =& h\left(\left(a\ast b\right)+\left(a\ast c\right)\right)\\ =& h\left(a\ast b\right)\stackrel{◯}{+}h\left(a\ast c\right)\\ =& \left(h\left(a\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(b\right)\right)\stackrel{◯}{+}\left(h\left(b\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(c\right)\right)\\ =& \left(x\stackrel{◯}{\ast }y\right)\stackrel{◯}{+}\left(x\stackrel{◯}{\ast }z\right)\end{array}$$
同理$\left(y\stackrel{◯}{+}z\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }x=\left(y\stackrel{◯}{\ast }x\right)\stackrel{◯}{+}\left(z\stackrel{◯}{\ast }x\right)$
故$\stackrel{◯}{\ast }$关于$\stackrel{◯}{+}$也是可分配的
（4）
$\forall x\in S^{\prime }$,因为$h$满射，所以$\exists a\in S$，使得$h\left(a\right)=x$,于是
$$h\left(e\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }x=h\left(e\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }\left(a\right)=h\left(e\ast a\right)=h\left(a\right)=x$$
同理$x\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(e\right)=x$,故$h\left(e\right)$是关于$\stackrel{◯}{\ast }$的单位元

（5）
$\forall x\in S^{\prime }$,因为$h$满射，所以$\exists a\in S$，使得$h\left(a\right)=x$,于是
$$h\left(0\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }x=h\left(0\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }\left(a\right)=h\left(0\ast a\right)=h\left(0\right)$$
同理$x\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(0\right)=h\left(0\right)$,故$h\left(0\right)$是关于$\stackrel{◯}{\ast }$的零元
（6）由（4），$h\left(e\right)$是关于$\stackrel{◯}{\ast }$的单位元
$\forall x,y\in S^{\prime }$，因为满射，所以$\exists a,b\in S$,使得$h\left(a\right)=x,h\left(b\right)=y$
$$x\stackrel{◯}{\ast }y=h\left(a\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(b\right)=h\left(a\ast b\right)$$
令$b=a^{-1}$，
$$x\stackrel{◯}{\ast }y=h\left(a\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(a^{-1}\right)=h\left(a\ast a^{-1}\right)=h\left(e\right)$$
同理$h\left(a^{-1}\right)\stackrel{◯}{\ast }h\left(a\right)=h\left(e\right)$,故$h\left(a\right)$关于$\stackrel{◯}{\ast }$是可逆的
后半段没怎么看懂

课后习题

1.考察代数系统$A=⟨\mathbb{N},\cdot ⟩$和 B = < { 0 , 1 } , ⋅ > B=\left<\left\{0,1\right\},\cdot \right> B=⟨{0,1},⋅⟩,其中$\cdot$是普通乘法运算。
函数 f : N → { 0 , 1 } f:\mathbb{N}\to \left\{0,1\right\} f:N→{0,1}定义为
$$f\left(n\right)=\{\begin{array}{ll}1,& \exists k\in \mathbb{N},n=2^k\\ 0,& otherwise\end{array}$$
试证明：$f$是从$A$到$B$的同态

证明：
若$a=2^{k_1},b=2^{k_2}$
$f\left(a\right)=f\left(b\right)=f\left(a\cdot b\right)=1$

若$a\ne 2^k$
则$f\left(a\right)=f\left(a\right)\ast f\left(b\right)=f\left(a\ast b\right)=0$

4.令${\mathbb{E}}_v$为偶数集。试证明：$⟨\mathbb{I},\cdot ⟩$与$⟨{\mathbb{E}}_v,\cdot ⟩$不同构

证明：

假设$\cdot$是二元运算

$⟨\mathbb{I},\cdot ⟩$的单位元为$1$
$⟨{\mathbb{E}}_v,\cdot ⟩$没有右单位元

如果同构,则$\exists f:\mathbb{I}\to {\mathbb{E}}_v$
对于$\forall a\in \mathbb{I}$，有
$$f\left(a\right)=f\left(a\cdot 1\right)=f\left(a\right)\cdot f\left(1\right)$$
因此$f\left(1\right)$为$⟨{\mathbb{E}}_v,\cdot ⟩$的右单位元，矛盾

因此不同构

7.设$h$是从代数系统$⟨S_1,\ast ⟩$到$⟨S_2,\cdot ⟩$的同态，$⟨T_2,\cdot ⟩$是$⟨S_2,\cdot ⟩$的子代数
试证明：$⟨h^{-1}\left(T_2\right),\ast ⟩$是$⟨S_1,\ast ⟩$的子代数，其中 h − 1 ( T 2 ) = { x ∈ S 1 ∣ h ( x ) ∈ T 2 } h^{-1}\left(T_2\right)=\left\{x\in S_1|h\left(x\right)\in T_2\right\} h−1(T2​)={x∈S1​∣h(x)∈T2​}

证明：设$\ast$的阶是$n$
显然$h^{-1}\left(T_2\right)\subseteq S_1$
$\forall a_1,a_2,\cdots a_n\in h^{-1}\left(T_2\right)$
$\exists b_1,b_2,\cdots b_n\in T_2$
使得$f\left(a_i\right)=b_i$

$$\begin{array}{rl}& h\left(\ast \left(a_1,a_2,\cdots a_n\right)\right)\\ =& \cdot \left(h\left(a_1\right),h\left(a_2\right),\cdots ,h\left(a_n\right)\right)\\ =& \cdot \left(b_1,b_2,\cdots ,b_n\right)\end{array}$$
因为$\ast \left(a_1,a_2,\cdots a_n\right)\in S_1$
$\cdot \left(b_1,b_2,\cdots ,b_n\right)\in T_2$
因此$\ast \left(a_1,a_2,\cdots a_n\right)\in h^{-1}\left(T_2\right)$
即封闭

因此$⟨h^{-1}\left(T_2\right),\ast ⟩$是$⟨S_1,\ast ⟩$的子代数

8.设$h_1$和$h_2$都是从代数系统$⟨S,\ast ⟩$到$⟨S^{\prime },\cdot ⟩$的同态
$\ast$和$\cdot$都是二元运算，且$\cdot$是可交换的和可结合的。作$h:S\to S^{\prime },x\mapsto h_1\left(x\right)\cdot h_2\left(x\right)$
试证明：$h$也是从$⟨S,\ast ⟩$到$⟨S^{\prime },\cdot ⟩$的同态

证明：
$\forall a,b\in S$
$$\begin{array}{rl}& h\left(a\ast b\right)\\ =& h_1\left(a\ast b\right)\cdot h_2\left(a\ast b\right)\\ =& \left(h_1\left(a\right)\cdot h_1\left(b\right)\right)\cdot \left(h_2\left(a\right)\cdot h_2\left(b\right)\right)\\ =& \left(h_1\left(a\right)\cdot h_2\left(a\right)\right)\cdot \left(h_1\left(b\right)\cdot h_2\left(b\right)\right)\\ =& h\left(a\right)\cdot h\left(b\right)\end{array}$$

因此$h$也是从$⟨S,\ast ⟩$到$⟨S^{\prime },\cdot ⟩$的同态

参考：
离散数学（刘玉珍）