电路Circuit->Chapter2 Basic Laws and Circuit Reduction(基本定律和电路简化)

2.1 Equivalent Circuits

After having introduced independent source and dependent source, as well as the resistor, we are ready to investigate the behavior of basic electric circuits.
A generally useful strategy in analyzing electric circuits is to simplify wherever possible.
It is often possible to simplify circuits by combining elements that are connected in series or parallel－ this applies to voltage and current sources as
well as resistors.
Circuit reduction
Replacing a part of a circuit with a simple circuit contains fewer elements, without altering any current or voltage outside that part.
The original and replacement circuits are equivalent to one another.
The simpler circuit can then be analyzed, and the results will apply equally to the original, more complex, circuit.

Two-terminal circuit

A circuit containing any number of interconnected elements, but with two accessible terminals, is called two-terminal circuit.

• Terminal voltage: The voltage across these terminals.
• Terminal current: The current into (or out) these terminals.
• The behavior of a two-terminal circuit is completely described by V-I characteristics (voltage-current relationship: a function of the form u = f(i) or i = g(u)) at the terminals.
• Two two-terminal circuit are said to be equivalent if they have same voltage-current relationship (VCR) at the terminals.
•An equivalent circuit is one whose V-I characteristics are identical with the original circuit.

While the currents and voltage external to the equivalent circuit will not be changed when one is exchanged for the, the internal behavior of the equivalents may be quite different.

2.2 Ohm’s Law

The circuit element used to model the current-resisting behavior of a material is the resistor.
Resistance is the capacity of materials to impede the flow of current.
The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it is measured in ohms(Ω)
symbol:

● Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a resistor is directly proportion to the current flowing through the resistor. The constant of proportionality is the resistance value of the resistor in ohms.
● For element current i and voltage u defined to satisfy the passive sign convention. Ohm’s law is

●The power dissipated by a resistor (which leads to
the production of heat) is given by $p=ui=i^{2}R=\frac{u^2}{R}$.
The relation between voltage and current(VCR)

u=Ri (passive sign convention)
-------Ohm’s Law
Since the value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important that we consider the two extreme possible value of R:

R=0-------is called a short circuit, u=0
注意电流无法确定,不一定为0
R=∞------is called an open circuit, i=0
注意电压不一定为0

Resistance and Conductance:
Resistance is the physical property (or ability) to resist current.
$$R=\rho \frac{l}{A}where\{\begin{array}{l}\rho :resistivity\\ A:cross-sectional(横截面)\\ l:length\end{array}$$
Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current, measured in siemens (S).
$$G=\frac{1}{R}=\frac{i}{v}$$
Resistance and conductance are reciprocals.

$Resistor:\{\begin{array}{l}Fixed\\ Variable\\ Linear\\ Nonlinear\end{array}$
Fixed: its resistance remains constant. (wirewound type; carbon film type)
Variable: variable resistors have adjustable resistance. (composition type; slider pot)

Linear resistor: obey Ohm’s Law
Nonlinear resistor: does not obey Ohm’s Law

Resistor Color Code
棕1，红2，橙3，黄4，绿5，蓝6，紫7，灰8，白9，黑0

2.3 Nodes,Branches,and Loops

Network topology

Study the properties relating to the placement of elements in the network and the geometric(几何) configuration of the network

1．A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor. In other words, branch represents any two-terminal element. ( b )
2．A node is the point of connection between two or more branches. ( n )
3．A loop is any closed path in a circuit with no node passed more than once. ( l )

2.4 Kirchhoff’s Laws

Kirchhoff’s laws form the foundation for circuit analysis

KCL: Kirchhoff’s Current Law (based on the law of conservation of charge)(基尔霍夫电流定律)

支路:每个二端元件(简单支路)
结(节)点:两条或两条以上支路的连接点
复合支路:通过同一电流的分支(简单支路的串联或并联)
广义节点:假定的闭合面
在集总参数电路中,任意时刻,对任意节点流出或流入该节点的代数和等于0

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.
$$\sum _{k=1}^n{i}_k=0i_1+i_2+\cdots +i_n=0$$

n: the number of branches connected to the node
ik: the kth current entering (or leaving) the node
+: the current entering the node
- : the current leaving the node
An alternative form of KCL:
$$\sum i_{in}=\sum i_{out}$$

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the node.
A node may be regarded as a closed surface shrunk to a point.
In two dimensions, a closed boundary is the same as a closed path.

说明

1. 有多少电荷流入就必须有多少电荷流出(对两边求积分)
2. KCL具有普遍适用性：与元件性质和种类无关
3. KCL适用于任一结点，也适用于任意假定的闭合面（广义结点）
4. KCL方程按照电流的参考方向列写，和电流实际方向无关

KVL: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (based on the principle of conservation of energy)

路径:两节点间的通路,由支路组成
回路:由支路组成的闭合路径
网孔:内部不含任何支路的回路

在集总参数电路中,任意时刻,对任意闭合路径,各支路电压的代数和为0
也适用于任意假定的闭合路径

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
∑ k = 1 n u k = 0          u 1 + u 2 + ⋯ + u n = 0 \sum\limits_{k=1}^nu_k=0~~~~~~~~u_1+u_2+\cdots+u_n=0