Chapter 4 (Vector Spaces): Vector spaces and subspaces (向量空间和子空间)

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Vector spaces

向量空间的定义

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Technically, $V$ is a real vector space (实数向量空间). All of the theory in this chapter also holds for a complex vector space (复数向量空间) .

从代数结构的角度理解 “向量空间”
- 公理 1~5 说明 $< V, + >$ 为一个 Abel 群 ( $+$ 为向量的加法运算)
  - One can show that the zero vector is unique, and the vector $-\boldsymbol u$ , called the negative of $\boldsymbol u$ , is unique for each $\boldsymbol u$ in $V$ . (幺元逆元均唯一)
- $<R,\oplus,\odot>$ 为域 ( $R$ 为实数集， $\oplus,\odot$ 为实数集上的加法和乘法运算)
- 公理 6 在 $R$ 和 $V$ 之间定义标量乘法 $\cdot$ ；公理 7~10 分别说明标量乘法 $\cdot$ 对向量加法 $+$ 满足分配律，标量乘法 $\cdot$ 对域加法 $\oplus$ 满足分配律，标量乘法 $\cdot$ 一致于 (compatible) 标量的域乘法 $\odot$ ，标量乘法 $\cdot$ 有幺元: 1, 这里 1 是指域 $R$ 的乘法幺元

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PROOF

(1). $\because (0+0)\boldsymbol u=0\boldsymbol u+0\boldsymbol u,(0+0)\boldsymbol u=0\boldsymbol u\\ \therefore 0\boldsymbol u+0\boldsymbol u=0\boldsymbol u\\\therefore 0\boldsymbol u=\boldsymbol 0(可约律)$
(2). $\because c(\boldsymbol 0+\boldsymbol 0)=c\boldsymbol 0,c(\boldsymbol 0+\boldsymbol 0)=c\boldsymbol0+c\boldsymbol 0\\ \therefore c\boldsymbol 0+c\boldsymbol 0=c\boldsymbol 0\\\therefore c\boldsymbol 0=\boldsymbol 0(可约律)$
(3). $\because \boldsymbol u+(-1)\boldsymbol u=(1+(-1))\boldsymbol u=0\boldsymbol u=\boldsymbol0 \\\therefore -\boldsymbol u=(-1)\boldsymbol u$

常见的向量空间

$R^n$

EXAMPLE 1

The spaces $\mathbb R^n$ , where $\geq 1$ , are the premier examples of vector spaces.

The geometric intuition developed for $\mathbb R^3$ will help you understand and visualize many concepts throughout the chapter.

力空间

EXAMPLE 2

Let $V$ be the set of all arrows (directed line segments) in three-dimensional space, with two arrows regarded as equal if they have the same length and point in the same direction.
- Define addition by the parallelogram rule, and for each $\boldsymbol v$ in $V$ , define $c\boldsymbol v$ to be the arrow whose length is $∣ c ∣$ times the length of $\boldsymbol v$ , pointing in the same direction as $\boldsymbol v$ if $\geq 0$ and otherwise pointing in the opposite direction. (See Figure 1.)
Show that $V$ is a vector space. This space is a common model in physical problems for various forces.

SOLUTION

The definition of $V$ is geometric, using concepts of length and direction. No $x y z$ -coordinate system is involved. An arrow of zero length is a single point and represents the zero vector. The negative of $\boldsymbol v$ is $(-1)\boldsymbol v$ . So Axioms 1, 4, 5, 6, and 10 are evident. The rest are verified by geometry. For instance, see Figures 2 and 3.

信号空间

EXAMPLE 3

Let $\mathbb S$ be the space of all doubly (双向) infinite sequences of numbers:
If ${z_k\}$ is another element of $\mathbb S$ , then the sum ${y_k\}+\{z_k\}$ is the sequence ${y_k+z_k\}$ formed by adding corresponding terms of ${y_k\}$ and ${z_k\}$ . The scalar multiple $c\{y_k\}$ is the sequence ${cy_k\}$ . The vector space axioms are verified in the same way as for $\mathbb R^n$ .
Elements of $\mathbb S$ arise in engineering, for example, whenever a signal is measured (or sampled) at discrete times. For convenience, we will call $\mathbb S$ the space of (discrete-time) signals (信号空间). A signal may be visualized by a graph as in Figure 4.

$\mathbb P^n$

EXAMPLE 4

For $\geq 0$ , the set $\mathbb P^n$ of polynomials of degree (多项式的次数) at most $n$ consists of all polynomials of the form
If $\boldsymbol p(t)= a_0 \neq 0$ , the degree of $\boldsymbol p$ is zero. If all the coefficients are zero, $\boldsymbol p$ is called the $z e r o$ $p o l y n o m i a l$ . The zero polynomial is included in $\mathbb P^n$ .
Analogous to EXAMPLE 3, $\mathbb P^n$ is a vecot space. The vector spaces $\mathbb P^n$ for various $n$ are used, for instance, in statistical trend analysis of data, discussed in Section 6.8.

实值函数空间

EXAMPLE 5

Let $V$ be the set of all real-valued functions (实值函数) defined on a set $\mathbb D$ . Functions are added in the usual way: $\boldsymbol f + \boldsymbol g$ is the function whose value at $t$ in the domain $\mathbb D$ is $\boldsymbol f(t) + \boldsymbol g(t)$ . Likewise, for a scalar $c$ and an $\boldsymbol f$ in $V$ , the scalar multiple $c\boldsymbol f$ is the function whose value at $t$ is $c\boldsymbol f(t)$ . Two functions in $V$ are equal if and only if their values are equal for every $t$ in $\mathbb D$ . Hence the zero vector in $V$ is the function that is identically zero, $\boldsymbol f(t)=0$ for all $t$ , and the negative of $\boldsymbol f$ is $(-1)\boldsymbol f$ . Axioms 1 and 6 are obviously true, and the other axioms follow from properties of the real numbers, so $V$ is a vector space.

Subspaces

In many problems, a vector space consists of an appropriate subset of vectors from some larger vector space. In this case, only three of the ten vector space axioms need to be checked; the rest are automatically satisfied.

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子空间就类似于向量空间的子代数

Some texts replace property (a) in this definition by the assumption that $H$ is nonempty. Then (a) could be deduced from ( $c$ ) and the fact that $0\boldsymbol u= \boldsymbol 0$ . But the best way to test for a subspace is to look first for the zero vector. If $\boldsymbol 0$ is not in $H$ , then $H$ cannot be a subspace and the other properties need not be checked.

Properties (a), (b), and ( $c$ ) guarantee that a subspace $H$ of $V$ is itself a vector space, under the vector space operations already defined in $V$ .
- To verify this, note that properties (a), (b), and ( $c$ ) are Axioms 1, 4, and 6. Axioms 2, 3, and 7–10 are automatically true in $H$ because they apply to all elements of $V$ . Axiom 5 is also true in $H$ , because if $\boldsymbol u$ is in $H$ , then $(-1)\boldsymbol u=-\boldsymbol u$ is in $H$ by property ( $c$ ).
Conversely, every vector space is a subspace (of itself and possibly of other larger spaces).
The set consisting of only the zero vector in a vector space $V$ is a subspace of $V$ , called the zero subspace and written as $\{\boldsymbol 0\}$ .

要证明某个集合是向量空间，也可以证明它是某个向量空间的子空间

EXAMPLE 8

The set
is a subset of $\mathbb R^3$ that “looks” and “acts” like $\mathbb R^2$ , although it is logically distinct from $\mathbb R^2$ . See Figure 7.

EXAMPLE 9

A plane in $\mathbb R^3$ not through the origin is not a subspace of $\mathbb R^3$ , because the plane does not contain the zero vector of $\mathbb R^3$ . Similarly, a line in $\mathbb R^2$ not through the origin, such as in Figure 8, is not a subspace of $\mathbb R^2$ .

A Subspace Spanned by a Set

由一个集合生成的子空间

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As in Chapter 1, the term linear combination refers to any sum of scalar multiples of vectors, and $Span\{\boldsymbol v_1,..., \boldsymbol v_p\}$ denotes the set of all vectors that can be written as linear combinations of $\boldsymbol v_1,..., \boldsymbol v_p$ .

We call $Span\{\boldsymbol v_1,..., \boldsymbol v_p\}$ the subspace spanned (or generated) by $\{\boldsymbol v_1,..., \boldsymbol v_p\}$ .
Given any subspace $H$ of $V$ , a spanning (or generating) set (生成/张成集) for $H$ is a set $\{\boldsymbol v_1,..., \boldsymbol v_p\}$ in $H$ such that $Span\{\boldsymbol v_1,..., \boldsymbol v_p\}$ .

EXAMPLE 10

In Section 4.5, you will see that every nonzero subspace of $\mathbb R^3$ , other than $\mathbb R^3$ itself, is either $Span\{\boldsymbol v_1, \boldsymbol v_2\}$ for some linearly independent $\boldsymbol v_1$ and $\boldsymbol v_2$ or $Span\{\boldsymbol v\}$ for $\boldsymbol v \neq \boldsymbol 0$ .
- In the first case, the subspace is a plane through the origin;
- In the second case, it is a line through the origin. (See Figure 9.)
  - It is helpful to keep these geometric pictures in mind, even for an abstract vector space.

EXAMPLE 11

Let $H$ be the set of all vectors of the form $(a - 3 b, b - a, a, b)$ , where $a$ and $b$ are arbitrary scalars. That is, let $\{(a-3b,b-a,a,b): a\ and\ b\ in\ \mathbb R\}$ . Show that $H$ is a subspace of $\mathbb R^4$ .

SOLUTION

Write the vectors in $H$ as column vectors. Then an arbitrary vector in $H$ has the form
This calculation shows that $\{\boldsymbol v_1, \boldsymbol v_2\}$ , where $\boldsymbol v_1$ and $\boldsymbol v_2$ are the vectors indicated above. Thus $H$ is a subspace of $\mathbb R^4$ .
Example 11 illustrates a useful technique of expressing a subspace $H$ as the set of linear combinations of some small collection of vectors. If $\{\boldsymbol v_1, ...,\boldsymbol v_p\}$ , we can think of the vectors $\boldsymbol v_1, ...,\boldsymbol v_p$ in the spanning set as “handles”(柄) that allow us to hold on to the subspace $H$ . Calculations with the infinitely many vectors in $H$ are often reduced to operations with the finite number of vectors in the spanning set.