Chapter 4 (Vector Spaces): Vector spaces and subspaces (向量空间和子空间)

Vector spaces

向量空间的定义

Technically, $V$ is a real vector space (实数向量空间). All of the theory in this chapter also holds for a complex vector space (复数向量空间) .

• 从代数结构的角度理解 “向量空间”
  • 公理 1~5 说明 $<V,+>$ 为一个 Abel 群 ($+$ 为向量的加法运算)
    • One can show that the zero vector is unique, and the vector $-\mathbf{u}$, called the negative of $\mathbf{u}$, is unique for each $\mathbf{u}$ in $V$ . (幺元逆元均唯一)
  • $<R,\oplus ,\odot >$ 为域 ($R$ 为实数集，$\oplus ,\odot$ 为实数集上的加法和乘法运算)
  • 公理 6 在 $R$ 和 $V$ 之间定义标量乘法 $\cdot$；公理 7~10 分别说明标量乘法 $\cdot$ 对向量加法 $+$ 满足分配律，标量乘法 $\cdot$ 对域加法 $\oplus$ 满足分配律，标量乘法 $\cdot$ 一致于 (compatible) 标量的域乘法 $\odot$，标量乘法 $\cdot$ 有幺元: 1, 这里 1 是指域 $R$ 的乘法幺元

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PROOF

• (1). $$\begin{gathered} \because (0+0)\mathbf{u}=0\mathbf{u}+0\mathbf{u},(0+0)\mathbf{u}=0\mathbf{u} \\ \therefore 0\mathbf{u}+0\mathbf{u}=0\mathbf{u} \\ \therefore 0\mathbf{u}=0(可约律) \end{gathered}$$
• (2). $$\begin{gathered} \because c(0+0)=c0,c(0+0)=c0+c0 \\ \therefore c0+c0=c0 \\ \therefore c0=0(可约律) \end{gathered}$$
• (3). $$\begin{gathered} \because \mathbf{u}+(-1)\mathbf{u}=(1+(-1))\mathbf{u}=0\mathbf{u}=0 \\ \therefore -\mathbf{u}=(-1)\mathbf{u} \end{gathered}$$

常见的向量空间

${\mathbb{R}}^n$

EXAMPLE 1

• The spaces ${\mathbb{R}}^n$, where $n\ge 1$, are the premier examples of vector spaces.

The geometric intuition developed for ${\mathbb{R}}^3$ will help you understand and visualize many concepts throughout the chapter.

力空间

EXAMPLE 2

• Let $V$ be the set of all arrows (directed line segments) in three-dimensional space, with two arrows regarded as equal if they have the same length and point in the same direction.
  • Define addition by the parallelogram rule, and for each $\mathbf{v}$ in $V$, define $c\mathbf{v}$ to be the arrow whose length is $|c|$ times the length of $\mathbf{v}$, pointing in the same direction as $\mathbf{v}$ if $c\ge 0$ and otherwise pointing in the opposite direction. (See Figure 1.)
• Show that $V$ is a vector space. This space is a common model in physical problems for various forces.
  

SOLUTION

• The definition of $V$ is geometric, using concepts of length and direction. No $xyz$-coordinate system is involved. An arrow of zero length is a single point and represents the zero vector. The negative of $\mathbf{v}$ is $(-1)\mathbf{v}$. So Axioms 1, 4, 5, 6, and 10 are evident. The rest are verified by geometry. For instance, see Figures 2 and 3.
  

信号空间

EXAMPLE 3

• Let $\mathbb{S}$ be the space of all doubly (双向) infinite sequences of numbers:
  If { z k } \{z_k\} {zk​} is another element of $\mathbb{S}$, then the sum { y k } + { z k } \{y_k\}+\{z_k\} {yk​}+{zk​} is the sequence { y k + z k } \{y_k+z_k\} {yk​+zk​} formed by adding corresponding terms of { y k } \{y_k\} {yk​} and { z k } \{z_k\} {zk​}. The scalar multiple c { y k } c\{y_k\} c{yk​} is the sequence { c y k } \{cy_k\} {cyk​}. The vector space axioms are verified in the same way as for ${\mathbb{R}}^n$.
• Elements of $\mathbb{S}$ arise in engineering, for example, whenever a signal is measured (or sampled) at discrete times. For convenience, we will call $\mathbb{S}$ the space of (discrete-time) signals (信号空间). A signal may be visualized by a graph as in Figure 4.
  

${\mathbb{P}}^n$

EXAMPLE 4

• For $n\ge 0$, the set ${\mathbb{P}}^n$ of polynomials of degree (多项式的次数) at most $n$ consists of all polynomials of the form
  If $\mathbf{p}(t)=a_0\ne 0$, the degree of $\mathbf{p}$ is zero. If all the coefficients are zero, $\mathbf{p}$ is called the $zero$ $polynomial$. The zero polynomial is included in ${\mathbb{P}}^n$.
• Analogous to EXAMPLE 3, ${\mathbb{P}}^n$ is a vecot space. The vector spaces ${\mathbb{P}}^n$ for various $n$ are used, for instance, in statistical trend analysis of data, discussed in Section 6.8.

实值函数空间

EXAMPLE 5

• Let $V$ be the set of all real-valued functions (实值函数) defined on a set $\mathbb{D}$. Functions are added in the usual way: $\mathbf{f}+\mathbf{g}$ is the function whose value at $t$ in the domain $\mathbb{D}$ is $\mathbf{f}(t)+\mathbf{g}(t)$. Likewise, for a scalar $c$ and an $\mathbf{f}$ in $V$ , the scalar multiple $c\mathbf{f}$ is the function whose value at $t$ is $c\mathbf{f}(t)$. Two functions in $V$ are equal if and only if their values are equal for every $t$ in $\mathbb{D}$. Hence the zero vector in $V$ is the function that is identically zero,$\mathbf{f}(t)=0$ for all $t$ , and the negative of $\mathbf{f}$ is $(-1)\mathbf{f}$. Axioms 1 and 6 are obviously true, and the other axioms follow from properties of the real numbers, so $V$ is a vector space.

Subspaces

• In many problems, a vector space consists of an appropriate subset of vectors from some larger vector space. In this case, only three of the ten vector space axioms need to be checked; the rest are automatically satisfied.

子空间就类似于向量空间的子代数

Some texts replace property (a) in this definition by the assumption that $H$ is nonempty. Then (a) could be deduced from ($c$) and the fact that $0\mathbf{u}=0$. But the best way to test for a subspace is to look first for the zero vector. If $0$ is not in $H$, then $H$ cannot be a subspace and the other properties need not be checked.

• Properties (a), (b), and ($c$) guarantee that a subspace $H$ of $V$ is itself a vector space, under the vector space operations already defined in $V$.
  • To verify this, note that properties (a), (b), and ($c$) are Axioms 1, 4, and 6. Axioms 2, 3, and 7–10 are automatically true in $H$ because they apply to all elements of $V$. Axiom 5 is also true in $H$, because if $\mathbf{u}$ is in $H$, then $(-1)\mathbf{u}=-\mathbf{u}$ is in $H$ by property ($c$).
• Conversely, every vector space is a subspace (of itself and possibly of other larger spaces).
• The set consisting of only the zero vector in a vector space $V$ is a subspace of $V$, called the zero subspace and written as { 0 } \{\boldsymbol 0\} {0}.

要证明某个集合是向量空间，也可以证明它是某个向量空间的子空间

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EXAMPLE 8

• The set
  is a subset of ${\mathbb{R}}^3$ that “looks” and “acts” like ${\mathbb{R}}^2$, although it is logically distinct from ${\mathbb{R}}^2$. See Figure 7.
  

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EXAMPLE 9

• A plane in ${\mathbb{R}}^3$ not through the origin is not a subspace of ${\mathbb{R}}^3$, because the plane does not contain the zero vector of ${\mathbb{R}}^3$. Similarly, a line in ${\mathbb{R}}^2$ not through the origin, such as in Figure 8, is not a subspace of ${\mathbb{R}}^2$.
  

A Subspace Spanned by a Set

由一个集合生成的子空间

As in Chapter 1, the term linear combination refers to any sum of scalar multiples of vectors, and S p a n { v 1 , . . . , v p } Span\{\boldsymbol v_1,..., \boldsymbol v_p\} Span{v1​,...,vp​} denotes the set of all vectors that can be written as linear combinations of ${\mathbf{v}}_1,...,{\mathbf{v}}_p$.

• We call S p a n { v 1 , . . . , v p } Span\{\boldsymbol v_1,..., \boldsymbol v_p\} Span{v1​,...,vp​} the subspace spanned (or generated) by { v 1 , . . . , v p } \{\boldsymbol v_1,..., \boldsymbol v_p\} {v1​,...,vp​}.
• Given any subspace $H$ of $V$ , a spanning (or generating) set (生成/张成集) for $H$ is a set { v 1 , . . . , v p } \{\boldsymbol v_1,..., \boldsymbol v_p\} {v1​,...,vp​} in $H$ such that H = S p a n { v 1 , . . . , v p } H = Span\{\boldsymbol v_1,..., \boldsymbol v_p\} H=Span{v1​,...,vp​}.

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EXAMPLE 10

• In Section 4.5, you will see that every nonzero subspace of ${\mathbb{R}}^3$, other than ${\mathbb{R}}^3$ itself, is either S p a n { v 1 , v 2 } Span\{\boldsymbol v_1, \boldsymbol v_2\} Span{v1​,v2​} for some linearly independent ${\mathbf{v}}_1$ and ${\mathbf{v}}_2$ or S p a n { v } Span\{\boldsymbol v\} Span{v} for $\mathbf{v}\ne 0$.
  • In the first case, the subspace is a plane through the origin;
  • In the second case, it is a line through the origin. (See Figure 9.)
    • It is helpful to keep these geometric pictures in mind, even for an abstract vector space.
      

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EXAMPLE 11

Let $H$ be the set of all vectors of the form $(a-3b,b-a,a,b)$, where $a$ and $b$ are arbitrary scalars. That is, let H = { ( a − 3 b , b − a , a , b ) : a   a n d   b   i n   R } H = \{(a-3b,b-a,a,b): a\ and\ b\ in\ \mathbb R\} H={(a−3b,b−a,a,b):a and b in R}. Show that $H$ is a subspace of ${\mathbb{R}}^4$.

SOLUTION

• Write the vectors in $H$ as column vectors. Then an arbitrary vector in $H$ has the form
  This calculation shows that H = S p a n { v 1 , v 2 } H = Span \{\boldsymbol v_1, \boldsymbol v_2\} H=Span{v1​,v2​}, where ${\mathbf{v}}_1$ and ${\mathbf{v}}_2$ are the vectors indicated above. Thus $H$ is a subspace of ${\mathbb{R}}^4$.
• Example 11 illustrates a useful technique of expressing a subspace $H$ as the set of linear combinations of some small collection of vectors. If H = S p a n { v 1 , . . . , v p } H = Span \{\boldsymbol v_1, ...,\boldsymbol v_p\} H=Span{v1​,...,vp​}, we can think of the vectors ${\mathbf{v}}_1,...,{\mathbf{v}}_p$ in the spanning set as “handles”(柄) that allow us to hold on to the subspace $H$. Calculations with the infinitely many vectors in $H$ are often reduced to operations with the finite number of vectors in the spanning set.

References

• $linear$ $algebra$ $and$ $its$ $applications$
• $linear$ $algebra$ $done$ $right$