Vehicle Dyanmics and Control 1. Kinematic bicycle model

参考链接如下：
Vehicle Dyanmics and Control

1. Kinematic bicycle model

1.1 Coordinate systems

Kinematic are about the geometric description of motions in space (e.g. based on different reference frames and coordinate systems).
Kinetics (or dynamics) are about the laws of the causes of motion (e.g. the effects of forces/moments in Newton’s laws).

Inertial, vehicle, and path reference frames

Inertial frame: The inertial frame is fixed to the earth. For the inertial frame, the right-handed Cartesian coordinates X-Y-Z are used. The Z-axis is vertical (anti-directional to the gravitation) and the X-Y-axes represent a horizontal plane (perpendicular to gravitation).

Vehicle frame: The vehicle frame is attached to the vehicle at a fixed vehicle reference point.（车辆的重心或者后轴中点） The coordinates $x_v-y_v-z_v$ are such that $x_v$ points towards the front, $y_v$ to the left side, and $z_v$ to the top of the vehicle (ISO 8855).

Horizontal frame: The origin of the horizontal frame is fixed to the vehicle reference point. However, the coordinates x-y-z have a different orientation than in the vehicle frame: The x- and y- axes are projections of the $x_v$- and $y_v$-axis onto the horizontal plane, and the z-axis is perpendicular to it.

Path frame: The origin of the path frame follow a given reference path. The coordinates of the path frame are defined as follows:

• d-axis: direction tangential to the path;
• e-axis: perpendicular to the d-axis in the road plane (pointing to the left);
• n-axis: perpendicular to the road plane such that a right-handed Cartesian coordinate system is obtained.
  

1.2 Vehicle kinematics: Terminology

All of the following terms are defined in ISO8855

The wheelbase l is the distance between the front and rear axle of a vehicle. （轴距）

The track b is the distance between the left and the right wheel (separately for front and rear axle). （轮距）

The horizontal plane is the plane orthogonal to the direction of gravitation through the vehicle reference point. The road plane is the plane tangential to the earth’s surface (road) at the vehicle reference point.
The slope angle $\lambda$ is the angle between the horizontal plane and the road plane in the direction of the x-axis. （坡度角）

The bank angle $\beta$ is the angle between the horizontal plane and the road plane in the direction of the y-axis. （倾斜角）


The vehicle velocity $\overrightarrow{v}(t)$ and vehicle acceleration $\overrightarrow{a}(t)$ are the first order and second order derivatives of the inertial coordinates X(t), Y(t), Z(t):
$$\overrightarrow{v}(t)=\left[\begin{array}{c}\dot{X}(t)\\ \dot{Y}(t)\\ \dot{Z}(t)\end{array}\right]and\overrightarrow{a}(t)=\left[\begin{array}{c}\ddot{X}(t)\\ \ddot{Y}(t)\\ \ddot{Z}(t)\end{array}\right].$$
Projecting the velocity vector $\overrightarrow{v}(t)$ and acceleration vector $\overrightarrow{a}(t)$ ,respectively, onto the horizontal coordinates yields in

• the x-direction: longitudinal velocity $v_{lon}$, longitudinal acceleration $a_{lon}(t)$;
• the y-direction: lateral velocity $v_{lat}$, lateral acceleration $a_{lat}(t)$;
• the z-direction: vertical velocity $v_{ver}$, vertical acceleration $a_{ver}(t)$.
  The yaw angle $\psi$ is the angle between the X-axis (inertial frame) and the x-axis (horizontal frame). The yaw angle is the vehicle’s rotation angle about the Z-axis.
  The angular velocity $\dot{\psi }$ is called the yaw rate.
  
  The pitch angle $\theta$ is the angle between the x-axis (horizontal frame) and the $x_v$-axis (vehicle frame). The pitch angle is the vehicle’s rotation angle about the y-axis. The angular velocity $\dot{\theta }$ is called the pitch rate.
  
  The roll angle $\varphi$ is the angle between the y-axis (horizontal frame) and the $y_v$-axis (vehicle frame). The roll angle is the vehicle’s rotation angle about the x-axis. The angular velocity $\dot{\varphi }$ is called the pitch rate.
  

1.3 Review: Kinematics of a rigid body

Kinematics of a point P in space

The position ${\overrightarrow{r}}_p(t)\in {\mathbb{R}}^3$ of P at time $t\in \mathbb{R}$ is given by 3 coordinates (of an arbitrary reference frame):
$${\overrightarrow{r}}_p(t)=\left[\begin{array}{c}x(t)\\ y(t)\\ z(t)\end{array}\right]{\overrightarrow{v}}_r(t)=\dot{{\overrightarrow{r}}_p}(t)=\left[\begin{array}{c}\dot{x}(t)\\ \dot{y}(t)\\ \dot{z}(t)\end{array}\right]{\overrightarrow{a}}_p(t)=\ddot{{\overrightarrow{r}}_p}(t)=\left[\begin{array}{c}\ddot{x}(t)\\ \ddot{y}(t)\\ \ddot{z}(t)\end{array}\right].$$

Describing the motion of a rigid body

A rigid body refers to a collection of infinitely many infinitesimally small mass points which are rigidly connected, i.e., their relative position remains uncharged over time.
The motion of a rigid body is described by the motion of a reference point C of the body (see above) plus the relative motion of all other points P w.r.t. C.

C: reference point that is fixed to the rigid body.
P: an arbitrary point of the rigid body.

• position: ${\overrightarrow{r}}_p={\overrightarrow{r}}_c+{\overrightarrow{r}}_{cp}$
  Fact: Because of the rigidity of the body, all points P of the body perform a relative rotation w.r.t. C.
  Let $\overrightarrow{\omega }\in {\mathbb{R}}^3$ be the angular velocity of the rigid body (in fact, it is independent of the choice of C).
  Let $\dot{\overrightarrow{\omega }}\in {\mathbb{R}}^3$ be the angular acceleration of the rigid body.
• velocity: ${\overrightarrow{v}}_p={\overrightarrow{v}}_c+\overrightarrow{\omega }\times {\overrightarrow{r}}_{cp}$
• acceleration: ${\overrightarrow{a}}_p={\overrightarrow{a}}_c+\dot{\overrightarrow{\omega }}\times {\overrightarrow{r}}_{cp}+\overrightarrow{\omega }\times (\overrightarrow{\omega }\times {\overrightarrow{r}}_{cp})$
  Remark: Thus a rigid body has 6 degrees of freedom in space:
• 3 positions ${\overrightarrow{r}}_c$ and 3 angles;
• 3 velocity ${\overrightarrow{v}}_c$ and 3 angular velocities $\overrightarrow{\omega }$;
• 3 accelerations ${\overrightarrow{a}}_c$ and 3 angular accelerations $\dot{\overrightarrow{\omega }}$.

Instantaneous center of rotation

The reference point C can be arbitrarily selected as any point of the rigid body, or even as a point outside of the body which is assumed to be fixed in the body’s reference frame.
Fact: At each time instance $t\in \mathbb{R}$, there exists a particular reference point O (the “instantaneous center of rotation”) for which ${\overrightarrow{v}}_O(t)=0$. In other words, each point P of the rigid body performs a pure rotation about O: ${\overrightarrow{v}}_P={\overrightarrow{v}}_O+\overrightarrow{\omega }\times {\overrightarrow{r}}_{OP}=\overrightarrow{\omega }\times {\overrightarrow{r}}_{OP}$

1.4 Ackermann steering geometry

The wheel steer angle ${\delta }_{ij}$, defined separately for each of the four wheels (i=f for “front” or i=r for “rear” and j=l for “left” or j=r for “right”), is the angle between the orientation of the wheel and the $x_v$-axis, about the $z_v$-axis.

Assumption: No rear wheel steering (${\delta }_{rl}={\delta }_{rr}=0$).
The slip angle ${\alpha }_{ij}$ (where i ∈ { f , r } i\in\{f,r\} i∈{f,r} and j ∈ { l , r } j\in\{l,r\} j∈{l,r}) is the angle between the velocity of the wheel’s center point $v_{ij}$ and the wheel’s orientation.

Kinematic four-wheel model

The kinematic four-wheel model assumes that the slip angle of all four tires is zero: ${\alpha }_{ij}=0$ for i ∈ { f , r } i\in\{f,r\} i∈{f,r} and j ∈ { l , r } j\in\{l,r\} j∈{l,r}.

The combination of all admissible (front) wheel steer angles for the kinematic four wheel model is called the Ackermann steering geometry.

Structure of a practical steering system

1.5 Kinematic bicycle model

The kinematic bicycle model is a simplification of the kinematic four-wheel model, where the two rear wheels and the two front wheels are lumped into on (imaginary) rear wheel and front wheel, respectively.

Equation of motion

Assuming a constant velocity v:
$$\begin{gathered} \dot{x}(t)=v\cos (\psi +\beta ) \\ \dot{y}(t)=v\sin (\psi +\beta ) \\ \dot{\psi }(t)=\omega =\frac{v}{R} \end{gathered}$$
下面推导R的表达式。By some basic geometry and trigonometry:
$$\begin{gathered} \tan \delta =\frac{l_f+l_r}{\bar{R}}\Rightarrow \bar{R}=\frac{l_f+l_r}{\tan \delta }, \\ \tan \beta =\frac{l_r}{\bar{R}}=\frac{l_r}{l_f+l_r}\tan \delta \\ \cos \beta =\frac{\bar{R}}{R}\Rightarrow \frac{1}{R}=\frac{1}{\bar{R}}\cos \beta =\frac{1}{l_f+l_r}\tan \delta \cos \beta \end{gathered}$$
代入前面的式子得到
$$\begin{gathered} \dot{x}(t)=v\cos (\psi +\beta ) \\ \dot{y}(t)=v\sin (\psi +\beta ) \\ \dot{\psi }(t)=\omega =\frac{v}{l_f+l_r}\tan \delta \cos \beta \\ where\beta =\arctan (\frac{l_r}{l_f+l_r}\tan \delta ) \end{gathered}$$