【离散数学】 SEU - 04 - 2021/03/12 - Predicates and Quantifiers

最新推荐文章于 2021-06-09 11:26:12 发布

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最新推荐文章于 2021-06-09 11:26:12 发布

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Discrete Mathematics and its Applications (8th Edition)
2021/03/12 - Predicates and Quantifiers

1 The Foundations: Logic and Proofs

1 The Foundations: Logic and Proofs

1.4 Predicates and Quantifiers

1.4.6 Precedence of Quantifiers

The quantifies $\forall$ and $\exists$ have higher precedence than all the logical operators.

1.4.7 Binding Variables

When a quantifier is used on the variable $x$ , we say that this occurrence of the variable is bound. An occurrence of a variable that is not bound by a quantifier or set equal to a particular value is said to be free.

Example: “Every student in this class has taken a course in C++.”
Solution 1:
If $U$ is all students in this class, define a proposition function $C p p (c)$ denoting " $x$ has taken a course in C++" and translate as $\forall x\ Cpp(x)$ .
Solution 2:
But is $U$ is all people, also define a propositional function $S (x)$ denoting " $x$ is a student in this class" and translate as “ $\forall x\ (S(x)\rightarrow Cpp(x))$ ”.
Wrong Solution:
$\forall x\ (S(x)\wedge Cpp(x))$ .

Example: “Some students in this class has taken a course in Java.”
Solution 1:
$\exists x\ Java(x)$ .
Solution 2:
$\exists x\ (S(x) \wedge Java(x))$ .
Wrong Solution:
$\exists x\ (S(x)\rightarrow Java(x))$ .

Example: Introduce the propositional functions $M a n (x)$ denoting " $x$ is a man" and $M o r t a l (x)$ denoteing " $x$ is mortal".

The two premises are:
$\forall x\ (Man(x)\rightarrow Mortal(x))$ $M a n (S o c r a t e s)$

The conclusion is: $M o r t a l (S o c r a t e s)$

1.4.8 Logical Equivalences Involving Quantifiers

Statements involving predicates and quantifiers are logically equivalent if and only if they have the same truth value:

for every predicate substituted into these statements
for every domain of discourse used for the variables in the expressions
The notation $S\equiv T$ indicates that $S$ and $T$ are logically equivalent.

Example:

$\forall x\ (P(x)\wedge Q(x))\equiv \forall x\ P(x) \wedge \forall x\ Q(x)$ .
$\exists x\ (P(x)\vee Q(x))\equiv \exists P(x) \vee \exists x\ Q(x)$ .
$\forall x\ \neg\neg S(x)\equiv \forall x\ S(x)$ .

1.4.9 Negating Quantified Expressions

$\neg\forall x\ P(x)$ is equivalent to $\exists x\ \neg P(x)$ are equivalent.
$\neg\exists x\ P(x)$ is equivalent to $\forall x\ \neg P(x)$ are equivalent.
De Morgan's Laws for Quantifiers

1.4.10 Translating from English into Logical Expressions

Example: “Some Students in this class has visited Mexico.”
Solution: Let $M (x)$ denote " $x$ has visited Mexico" and $S (c)$ denote " $x$ is a student in this class" and $U$ be all people.
$\exists x\ (S(x)\wedge M(x))$

Example: “Every student in this class has visited Canada or Mexico.”
Solution: Add $C (x)$ denoting " $x$ has visited Canada".
$\forall x\ (S(x)\rightarrow (M(x)\vee C(x)))$

Example: “Not all the students in this class have visited Mexico.”
Solution: $\neg\forall x(S(x)\rightarrow M(x))$ $\exists x\ (S(x)\wedge\neg M(x))$