2021-火的天堂: 中等尺度野火模拟

摘要

/**
Resulting from changing climatic conditions, wildfires have become an existential threat across various countries around the world. The complex dynamics paired with their often rapid progression renders wildfires an often disastrous natural phenomenon that is difficult to predict and to counteract.In this paper we present a novel method for simulating wildfires with the goal to realistically capture the combustion process of individual trees and the resulting propagation of fires at the scale of forests. We rely on a stateof-the-art modeling approach for large-scale ecosystems that enables us to represent each plant as a detailed 3D geometric model. We introduce a novel mathematical formulation for the combustion process of plants – also considering effects such as heat transfer, char insulation, and mass loss – as well as for the propagation of fire through the entire ecosystem. Compared to other wildfire simulations which employ geometric representations of plants such as cones or cylinders, our detailed 3D tree models enable us to simulate the interplay of geometric variations of branching structures and the dynamics of fire and wood combustion. Our simulation runs at interactive rates and thereby provides a convenient way to explore different conditions that affect wildfires, ranging from terrain elevation profiles and ecosystem compositions to various measures against wildfires, such as cutting down trees as firebreaks, the application of fire retardant, or the simulation of rain
*/

由于气候条件的变化，野火已成为世界各国的生存威胁。复杂的动态加上其快速发展，使得野火成为一种灾难性的自然现象，难以预测和应对。在本文中，我们提出了一种模拟野火的新方法，目的是真实地捕捉单个树木的燃烧过程以及由此产生的森林规模的火灾传播。我们依靠最先进的大规模生态系统建模方法，使我们能够将每种植物表示为详细的三维几何模型。我们介绍了一种新的植物燃烧过程的数学公式，还考虑了热传递、焦炭绝缘和质量损失等影响，以及火灾在整个生态系统中的传播。与其他采用植物几何表示（如圆锥体或圆柱体）的野火模拟相比，我们的详细3D树模型使我们能够模拟分支结构的几何变化以及火灾和木材燃烧动力学的相互作用。我们的模拟以交互速率运行，因此提供了一种便捷的方式来探索影响野火的不同条件，从地形高程剖面和生态系统组成，到各种防止野火的措施，例如砍伐树木作为防火林，应用阻燃剂，或模拟降雨。

/*
 1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years, climate change has facilitated an inexorable increase of bigger and more intense wildfires across the globe. Understanding the complex interplay of fires and large-scale ecosystems plays a key role in preventing wildfires and in containing them. To this end, we argue that simulating wildfires with detailed geometric models of terrain and vegetation along with physically plausible fluid dynamics can serve as an essential tool for understanding wildfires and for predicting their outcome. However, realistically simulating wildfires in different ecosystems, also considering the wide range of geometric compositions of trees and plants, their inhomogeneous material properties, as well as the interaction of a fire and the atmosphere, is a challenging and open problem.

While a wide range of methods exists to plausibly model branching structures [Měch and Prusinkiewicz 1996; Palubicki et al. 2009;Pirk et al. 2012b; Stava et al. 2014], only very recently methods also focus on the realistic simulation of dynamic behavior and physics response of plant models, including the simulation of growth [Longay et al. 2012], surface adaptation [Hädrich et al. 2017], the interaction with wind [Pirk et al. 2014], or based on realistic material properties [Wang et al. 2013; Zhao and Barbič 2013]. Previous work has combined ecosystem and terrain erosion simulation for authoring landscapes [Cordonnier et al. 2017]. This avenue of research has been expanded modeling large-scale ecosystems [Kapp et al. 2020;Makowski et al. 2019], and terrain features, such as avalanches [Cordonnier et al. 2018] or glaciers [Argudo et al. 2020]. Together, these methods provide a testament that efforts trend toward physically plausible and specialized approaches to simulate natural phenomena.

Most of the current methods for simulating combustion processes do not specifically focus on tree or wood combustion and therefore cannot be easily applied to models of trees and plants [Melek and Keyser 2002]. Methods in other research disciplines, such as material sciences or forestry, specifically focus on wildfires or the resistance of trees to fires. However, these methods are often computationally demanding and only focus on the combustion of wood samples in laboratory setups [Thi et al. 2016] or employ severely simplified geometric representations of trees and plants [Seidl et al. 2012],such as a suspended cloud of spherical Lagrangian particles that represent either foliage or wood [Mendoza et al. 2019]. Closest to our work is the method of Pirk et al. [2017], who discretize branches as triangular surface meshes that enable the simulation of tree combustion with an astounding degree of detail for complex branching structures at interactive rates. However, while their work focuses on the combustion of individual tree models, we aim to simulate wildfires at forest scale, which cannot be realized with their representation.

In this paper, we advance the field of wildfire simulations by introducing a novel mathematical formulation that allows us to simulate the combustion of trees at an intermediate scale using detailed geometric models. We employ the method of Makowski et al. [2019] to simulate ecosystems. Each tree model is composed of a number of self-organizing branch templates that define its 3D branching structure. Collections of trees can grow together, which results in diverse and realistic branching structures for individual tree models in the ecosystem, while each module is reused across the same tree and for all other trees, which enables efficient modeling and rendering. An advantage of a module-based tree representation is that it provides a convenient way to control the level of detail for representing trees.A tree can either be represented by a large number of very detailed modules, which allows us to generate complex and highly realistic branching structures, or – to the opposite effect – by only a few coarser modules to represent each tree in a lightweight and thus more efficient manner.

To simulate tree combustion we use this module-based representation for trees in two ways: (1) we simulate the combustion at the branch level for each module. This allows us to capture various effects necessary to realistically simulate the combustion of individual branches, including char insulation, mass loss, and heat transfer;(2) we compute the combustion of wood – also known as pyrolysis – across the entire tree at module-scale. A collection of modules that represent a tree model is defined as a directed graph. Once the combustion of a single module progresses toward an adjacent module, the combustion is propagated to this module and continued for this module’s branching structure.

Our goal is to jointly simulate fire and the combustion of large collections of plants – a computationally demanding undertaking.To capture the spread of fire across the entire ecosystem we use a volumetric grid-based fluid solver that enables us to transfer heat from the environment to individual plants. A burning plant – in turn – releases heat to its environment, which triggers a feedback loop that maintains the combustion and that may cause the spread of fire from one plant to another. A key advantage of our wildfire model is that the combustion of plant tissue and the simulation of fire are decoupled: Trees can be represented with a varying number of modules, while fire can be computed with more or less detailed volumetric grids. This allows us to manage the complexity required for wildfire simulations, while maintaining the realistic and physically plausible interaction of trees and fire. An example of a complex wildfire simulation is shown in Figure 1. In this contribution, we do
not address fire spread on the ground facilitated by grass, branch litter, and undergrowth vegetation. Moreover, the role of leaves is ignored and the modeling of sparks flying through the air is left for future work.

In summary, our contributions are as follows: (1) we introduce a novel combustion model for individual trees based on branch modules that allows us to realistically simulate wood pyrolysis; (2) we propose a hybrid model capturing heat transfer between individual branch modules and the environment allowing to appropriately capture fire spread; (3) we capture cloud and rain phenomena within our wildfire simulator by extending the Kessler model; (4) we simulate wildfires of more than 100K individual plants represented by complex and detailed geometry; (5) we show that our interactive framework enables us to explore the emergence of wildfires in ecosystems of different composition and ways to counteract the spread of fire.
*/

1 简介

近年来，气候变化促使全球范围内更大、更强烈的野火无情地增加。了解火灾与大规模生态系统的复杂相互作用，对于预防和控制野火起着关键作用。为此，我们认为，使用地形和植被的详细几何模型以及物理上合理的流体动力学模拟野火，可以作为理解野火和预测其后果的基本工具。然而，现实地模拟不同生态系统中的野火，同时考虑树木和植物的各种几何组成、其不均匀的材料特性以及火灾和大气的相互作用是一个具有挑战性和开放性的问题。

虽然有多种方法可以合理地模拟分枝结构[Měch和Prusinkiewicz 1996；Palubicki等人2009；Pirk等人2012b；Stava等人2014]，但只有最近的方法还专注于植物模型动态行为和物理响应的真实模拟，包括生长模拟[Longay等人2012]、表面适应[Hädrich等人2017]，与风的相互作用[Pirk等人，2014年]，或基于真实材料特性[Wang等人，2013年；Zhao和Barbič2013年]。之前的工作结合了生态系统和地形侵蚀模拟来创作景观[Cordonnier等人，2017年]。这一研究途径已经扩展到模拟大规模生态系统[Kapp等人，2020；Makowski等人，2019]和地形特征，如雪崩[Cordonnier等人，2018]或冰川[Argudo等人，2020]。总之，这些方法证明了模拟自然现象的努力趋向于物理上合理和专业化的方法。

目前大多数模拟燃烧过程的方法并不特别关注树木或木材燃烧，因此无法轻松应用于树木和植物模型[Melek和Keyser，2002]。其他研究学科（如材料科学或林业）的方法特别关注野火或树木的耐火性。然而，这些方法通常需要计算，只关注实验室设置中木材样品的燃烧[Thi等人，2016年]或使用树木和植物的严格简化几何表示[Seidl等人，2012年]，例如代表树叶或木材的球形拉格朗日粒子悬浮云[Mendoza等人，2019年]。与我们的工作最接近的是Pirk等人[2017]的方法，他们将树枝离散为三角形表面网格，以交互速率模拟复杂树枝结构的树木燃烧，其细节令人震惊。然而，虽然他们的工作侧重于单个树木模型的燃烧，但我们的目标是在森林规模上模拟野火，这无法通过其表示实现。

在本文中，我们通过引入一种新的数学公式来推进野火模拟领域，该公式允许我们使用详细的几何模型在中等尺度上模拟树木的燃烧。我们采用Makowski等人[2019]的方法模拟生态系统。每个树模型由许多自组织分支模板组成，这些模板定义其三维分支结构。树的集合可以一起生长，这导致生态系统中单个树模型的分支结构多样化和逼真，而每个模块在同一棵树和所有其他树上重用，从而实现高效的建模和渲染。基于模块的树表示的优点是，它提供了一种方便的方法来控制表示树的详细程度。一棵树可以由大量非常详细的模块表示，这使我们能够生成复杂和高度逼真的分支结构，或者——相反的效果——仅由几个较粗糙的模块来表示每棵树，以轻量级的方式，从而更有效。

为了模拟树燃烧，我们以两种方式使用这种基于模块的树表示：（1）我们在每个模块的分支级别模拟燃烧。这使我们能够捕捉到真实模拟单个分支燃烧所需的各种效应，包括焦炭绝缘、质量损失和传热；（2） 我们在模块规模上计算了整个树木的木材燃烧（也称为热解）。表示树模型的模块集合定义为有向图。一旦单个模块的燃烧向相邻模块推进，燃烧将传播到此模块，并继续此模块的分支结构。

我们的目标是联合模拟火灾和大量植物的燃烧，这是一项计算量大的任务。为了捕捉火灾在整个生态系统中的传播，我们使用了基于体积网格的流体求解器，使我们能够将环境中的热量传递到单个植物。燃烧的植物反过来向其环境释放热量，从而触发一个反馈回路，维持燃烧，并可能导致火从一颗植物蔓延到另外一棵植物。我们的野火模型的一个关键优点是，植物组织的燃烧和火灾模拟是解耦的：树木可以用不同数量的模块表示，而火灾可以用或多或少详细的体积网格计算。这使我们能够管理野火模拟所需的复杂性，同时保持树木和火灾之间的真实和物理上合理的相互作用。图1显示了一个复杂野火模拟的示例。在本文中，我们不讨论草、树枝凋落物和灌木丛植被促进的地面火灾蔓延。此外，忽略了树叶的作用，将通过空气飞行的火花建模留待以后的工作。

总之，我们的贡献如下：（1）我们介绍了一种新的基于分支模块的单株树木燃烧模型，该模型允许我们真实地模拟木材热解；（2） 我们提出了一种混合模型，用于捕捉单个分支模块和环境之间的热传递，从而能够适当捕捉火灾蔓延；（3） 通过扩展 Kessler模型，我们在野火模拟器中捕捉云和降雨现象；（4） 我们模拟了由复杂而详细的几何形状表示的超过10万株植物的野火；（5） 我们展示了我们的交互框架，使我们能够探索不同组成的生态系统中野火的出现以及阻止火灾蔓延的方法。

/**
# 2 RELATED WORK
With our goal to simulate wildfires for individual and detailed models of trees our work is related to methods that aim at generating complex and realistic models of terrains, the modeling of vegetation,as well as the simulation of fire or – more generally – fluid dynamics.While this spans a breath of work that we cannot conclusively discuss, our goal is to provide an overview for these research directions with a focus on tree and terrain modeling.

Modeling Trees and Plants. Many of the early approaches for modeling trees and plants have focused on defining the internal properties of trees, such as branching angles and internode lengths to model branching structures [Aono and Kunii 1984; Kawaguchi 1982; Oppenheimer 1986; Smith 1984]. Later, biologically plausible methods were introduced that allow us to model the many variants of tree form in more nuanced and principled ways [Bloomenthal 1985; Weber and Penn 1995] and based on defining the developmental process of plants [de Reffye et al. 1988]. Furthermore,L-systems [Prusinkiewicz 1986] and rule-based techniques [Lintermann and Deussen 1999] have been recognized as powerful modeling approaches for diverse shapes of trees and plants.

To further increase the realism, a few methods also aim at modeling the environmental response of plants during their development [Měch and Prusinkiewicz 1996; Palubicki et al. 2009; Pirk et al.2012b; Stava et al. 2014].Besides the forward modeling of branching structures, reconstructing trees and plants based on images [Argudo et al. 2016; Neubert et al. 2007; Quan et al. 2006; Reche-Martinez et al.2004; Tan et al. 2008] or point clouds [Livny et al. 2011; Xu et al.2007] also provides a convenient alternative to capture complex plant form. Sketch-based approaches on the other hand enable the refined generation of tree models, while also supporting artistic requirements toward content creation [Chen et al. 2008; Longay et al.2012; Okabe et al. 2007; Wither et al. 2009]. More recently, a number of methods simulate the physics-response and the dynamics of tree models, including the swaying of trees in wind fields [Habel et al.2009; Pirk et al. 2014], the interactive modeling of growth [Hädrich et al. 2017; Pirk et al. 2012a], or the simulation of tree dynamics based on physically plausible materials [Wang et al. 2013; Zhao and Barbič 2013] or through machine learning-assisted iterative solvers [Shao et al. 2021].

Terrain Models and Plant Ecosystems. Generating detailed models of complex terrain has been extensively studied in computer graphics [Fournier et al. 1982; Kelley et al. 1988]. Early approaches for modeling photo-realistic terrains mostly focus on generating complex natural landscapes by employing fractals [van Lawick van Pabst and Jense 1996], noise functions [Perlin 1985], or procedural models [Ebert et al. 2002]. For plant ecosystems, existing methods not only aim at finding ways to compute realistic distributions of various species [Deussen et al. 2002, 1998; Lane and Prusinkiewicz 2002], but also to identify representations for ecosystems that enable modeling and rendering at scale; methods range from voxels [Jaeger and Teng 2003] and volumetric textures [Bruneton and Neyret 2012] to layers [Argudo et al. 2017] and branch templates [Makowski et al. 2019]. To support the design and content creation of terrain and ecosystems a number of methods also explore sketch-based interfaces in conjunction with biological priors [Beneš et al. 2009]. We refer to the recent survey by Galin et al. [2019] for a more detailed overview on terrain modeling. It is worth pointing out that real-world data and machine learning has been leveraged using generative adversarial networks trained by real-world terrains and their sketched counterparts [Guérin et al. 2017], or by deriving a canopy height model combined with an understory layer resulting in realistic ecosystems [Kapp et al. 2020].

Due to the enormous amount of geometry required to realistically generate plant ecosystems a number of methods focus on level of detail strategies. Prominent examples include point and line representations [Deussen et al. 2002; Stamminger and Drettakis 2001], billboard clouds [Behrendt et al. 2005], or stochastic simplification [Cook et al. 2007; Neubert et al. 2011]. To efficiently model large-scale ecosystems, we employ the method of Makowski et al. [2019] that represents trees as collections of branch modules that can be efficiently instantiated to model and render large collections of plants, while the full branch geometry of individual tree models is retained.

Simulating Fire and Combustion. The computation of fluid dynamics as required for simulating fire has a long tradition in computer graphics research [Bridson 2008]. Most approaches rely on grid based fluid solvers to capture turbulence as one of the predominant features of fire [Hong et al. 2010; Nguyen et al. 2002; Stam 1999] or smoke [Fedkiw et al. 2001; Pan and Manocha 2017; Rasmussen et al. 2003]. Furthermore, a number of methods explicitly focus on rendering fires either based on physically-accurate models [Nguyen et al. 2002; Pegoraro and Parker 2006] also with respect to specific flame properties [Nguyen et al. 2001], with an emphasis on artistic control [Lamorlette and Foster 2002], or based on combined representations that also use particles to simulate turbulence [Horvath and Geiger 2009].

Similar to simulating fire, the process of combustion is often modeled based on planar or volumetric grids that enable to not only model the distribution of heat [Melek and Keyser 2002] on surfaces [Chiba et al. 1994] or in volumes [Zhao et al. 2003], but also to simulate fire across disconnected propagating fronts [Liu et al. 2012]. Simulating combustion and heat diffusion for articulated and continuously defined surface geometry remains a challenging problem, which is only addressed by a few methods [Hong et al.2010]. Material point methods, on the other hand, have recently gained popularity capturing thermodynamic properties to simulate phenomena such as the melting or solidifying of materials [Stomakhin et al. 2014]. However, most of these methods are not defined to simulate wood combustion at ecosystem scale.

Wood Combustion and Wildfires. In forestry, botany, and material science a substantial amount of work focuses on the combustion of wood and plants. Existing methods range from simulating heat transfer [Encinas et al. 2007], charring [Lizhong et al. 2002], or the pyrolysis process of entire trees and plants [Bohren and Thorud 1973]. A key factor for understanding the propagation of fire in forests is the fire resistance of plants. Hence, a number of approaches aim at modeling the resistance of individual species [Lawes et al.2011], the impact of canopy architecture on flammability [Schwilk 2003], or the moisture content of plant material [Masinda et al.2020]. A large body of work focuses on simulating wildfires, often with the goal to establish predictive models [Monedero et al. 2017;Pastor et al. 2003; Richards 1990], to simulate fires for different biomes [Cheney et al. 1993; Dupuy and Larini 2000], to understand smoke properties and the ignition of wildfires [Anand et al. 2017;

Gustenyov et al. 2018], to predict high-fidelity flows around strongly simplified trees [Mendoza et al. 2019], or by specifically focusing on the coupling of wildfires and the atmosphere [Coen 2005; Sun et al.2009]. Finally, researchers also investigate the long-term growth response of vegetation to wildfires [Chileen et al. 2020]. Similar to our work, many of these approaches aim at defining accurate models for wood combustion or physically-accurate solvers for wildfires.However, unlike these methods, we simulate wood combustion for detailed geometric models of trees, which enables us to explore the impact of vegetation geometry on the propagation of wildfires.

*/

2 相关工作

我们的目标是为树木的单个和详细模型模拟野火，我们的工作与旨在生成复杂和真实地形模型、植被建模以及火灾模拟或更普遍的流体动力学的方法有关。虽然这涉及到一些我们无法最终讨论的工作，但我们的目标是概述这些研究方向，重点是树木和地形建模。

为树木和植物建模。许多早期的树木和植物建模方法都专注于定义树木的内部属性，例如分枝角度和节间长度，以建模分枝结构[Aono和Kunii 1984；Kawaguchi 1982；Oppenheimer 1986；Smith 1984]。后来，引入了生物学上合理的方法，使我们能够以更精细和更有原则的方式模拟树木形态的许多变体[Bloomenthal 1985；Weber和Penn 1995]，并基于定义植物的发育过程[de Reffye等人，1988]。此外，L-系统[Prusinkiewicz 1986]和基于规则的技术[Lintermann和Deussen 1999]已被公认为针对不同形状树木和植物的强大建模方法。

为了进一步提高真实性，一些方法还旨在模拟植物发育过程中的环境响应[Měch和Prusinkiewicz 1996；Palubicki等人，2009；Pirk等人，2012b；Stava等人，2014]。除了分支结构的正向建模外，基于图像重建树木和植物[Argudo等人2016年；Neubert等人2007年；Quan等人2006年；Reche Martinez等人2004年；Tan等人2008年]或点云[Livny等人2011年；Xu等人2007年]也提供了一种捕捉复杂植物形态的方便替代方法。另一方面，基于草图的方法可以精确生成树模型，同时也支持内容创作的艺术要求[Chen等人2008；Longay等人2012；Okabe等人2007；Wither等人2009]。最近，许多方法模拟了树木模型的物理响应和动力学，包括风场中树木的摇摆[Habel等人2009；Pirk等人2014]，生长的交互建模[Hädrich等人2017；Pirk等人2012a]，或基于物理合理材料的树木动力学模拟[Wang等人，2013；Zhao和Barbič2013]或通过机器学习辅助迭代求解器[Shao等人，2021]。

地形模型和植物生态系统。计算机图形学广泛研究了复杂地形的详细模型生成[Fournier等人，1982年；Kelley等人，1988年]。早期用于模拟照片真实地形的方法大多侧重于通过使用分形[van Lawick van Pabst和Jense 1996]、噪声函数[Perlin 1985]或程序模型[Ebert等人，2002]生成复杂的自然景观。对于植物生态系统，现有方法不仅旨在找到计算各种物种真实分布的方法[Deussen等人，2002年、1998年；Lane和Prusinkiewicz，2002年]，而且还旨在确定生态系统的表示方法，以实现大规模建模和渲染；方法范围从体素[Jaeger和Teng 2003]和体积纹理[Bruneton和Neyret 2012]到层[Argudo等人2017]和分支模板[Makowski等人2019]。为了支持地形和生态系统的设计和内容创建，许多方法还结合生物先验探索了基于草图的界面[Benešet al.2009]。我们参考Galin等人[2019]最近的调查，了解地形建模的更详细概述。值得指出的是，真实世界的数据和机器学习已被利用，使用由真实世界地形及其草图对应物训练的生成性对抗网络[Guérin等人，2017年]，或通过推导树冠高度模型与林下层相结合，从而形成现实的生态系统[Kapp等人，2020年]。

由于实际生成植物生态系统需要大量几何形状，许多方法侧重于细节层次策略。突出的例子包括点和线表示[Deussen等人，2002年；Stamminger和Drettakis，2001年]、广告牌云[Behrendt等人，2005年]或随机简化[Cook等人，2007年；Neubert等人，2011年]。为了有效地模拟大规模生态系统，我们采用了Makowski等人[2019]的方法，将树木表示为分支模块的集合，可以有效地实例化以建模和渲染大型植物集合，同时保留了单个树木模型的完整分支几何体。

模拟火灾和燃烧。模拟火灾所需的流体动力学计算在计算机图形学研究中有着悠久的传统[Bridson 2008]。大多数方法依赖于基于网格的流体解算器来捕捉湍流，将其作为火[Hong等人，2010；Nguyen等人，2002；Stam 1999]或烟[Fedkiw等人，2001；Pan和Manocha 2017；Rasmussen等人，2003]的主要特征之一。此外，许多方法明确关注基于物理精确模型的火灾渲染[Nguyen等人，2002；Pegoraro和Parker 2006]以及特定火焰特性[Nguyen等人，2001]，重点是艺术控制[Lamorlette和Foster，2002]，或者基于也使用粒子模拟湍流的组合表示[Horvath和Geiger 2009]。

与模拟火灾类似，燃烧过程通常基于平面或体积网格进行建模，该网格不仅能够模拟表面上的热量分布[Melek和Keyser 2002]【Chiba等人，1994年】或体积[Zhao等人，2003年】，而且能够模拟断开传播锋上的火灾[Liu等人，2012年]。模拟铰接和连续定义的表面几何形状的燃烧和热扩散仍然是一个具有挑战性的问题，只能通过几种方法解决[Hong等人，2010年]。另一方面，材料点法最近得到了广泛应用，可以捕捉热力学性质来模拟材料的熔化或固化等现象[Matikhin等人，2014年]。然而，这些方法大多未定义为在生态系统规模上模拟木材燃烧。

木材燃烧和野火。在林业、植物学和材料科学领域，大量工作集中在木材和植物的燃烧上。现有方法包括模拟传热[Encinas等人2007]、炭化[Lizhong等人2002]或整个树木和植物的热解过程[Bohren和Thorud 1973]。理解森林火灾传播的一个关键因素是植物的耐火性。因此，许多方法旨在模拟单个物种的抗性[Lawes等人2011]、冠层结构对易燃性的影响[Schwilk 2003]或植物材料的含水量[Masinda等人2020]。大量工作侧重于模拟野火，其目标通常是建立预测模型[Monedero等人2017年；Pastor等人2003年；Richards 1990年]，以模拟不同生物群落的火灾[Cheney等人1993年；Dupuy和Larini 2000年]，了解烟雾特性和野火的点燃[Anand等人2017年；

Gustenyov等人，2018年），预测高度简化树木周围的高保真流[Mendoza等人，2019年]，或特别关注野火和大气的耦合[Coen 2005年；Sun等人，2009年]。最后，研究人员还调查了植被对野火的长期生长反应[Chileen等人，2020]。与我们的工作类似，其中许多方法旨在定义木材燃烧的精确模型或野火的物理精确解算器。然而，与这些方法不同，我们模拟树木的详细几何模型的木材燃烧，这使我们能够探索植被几何形状对野火传播的影响。

/**
# 3 OVERVIEW
The main motivation for our approach is to realistically model and simulate wildfires at forest scale. This objective is challenging because of two main reasons. First, modeling realistic large-scale scenes of vegetation commonly requires the generation of an enormous amount of geometric detail. Second, computing the pyrolysis of wood at branch-level, while also coupling the combustion process with a solver for fluid dynamics to model the spread of fire is computationally demanding and commonly not performed jointly.

We address these challenges by employing a multi-scale representation for vegetation that uses branch modules to represent plants [Makowski et al. 2019]. Each plant is defined as a collection of branch modules that locally adapt as a result of the plant’s development and its interaction with neighboring plants – a process that results in individual and highly detailed branching structures.A key advantage of this representation is that modules can be instantiated and reused across the same plant and for other plants in the ecosystem (Figure 2).

We use this module-based representation to define a novel combustion model for plants. Unlike other approaches that define pyrolysis at the scale of mesh elements [Pirk et al. 2017], we define the combustion of wood for individual branch modules. This level of abstraction has two major advantages. For one, the modules allow us to define the level of detail at which we want to model wildfires. Trees can be represented with varying degrees of detail, ranging from only a few coarse modules – where each module only represents a few branch segments — to a large number of detailed modules that result in branching structures with a high degree of visual fidelity.Second, computing the combustion at the level of modules allows us to retain the geometric structure of individual plants, while we can simultaneously process large collections of trees. A detailed geometric representation is important to realistically simulate the propagation of fire within a single tree as well as across an entire forest.

Finally, we employ two models for fluid dynamics to simulate fire,smoke, and clouds. We employ an Eulerian fluid solver to simulate fire and to model its propagation through the ecosystem. This way,fire can be transferred from module to module and – in turn – from tree to tree. Second, we use a state-of-the-art model for cloud dynamics to simulate so called flammagenitus clouds that emerge from large-scale wildfires as shown in Figure 19. For real wildfires, fire clouds often play a critical role as they occlude the fire and thereby hinder taking measures against fire spread. Therefore, simulating fire clouds greatly adds to the realism of wildfire simulations.

In summary, we model wildfires by coupling a module-based representation for vegetation with a novel combustion model that operates at the scale of individual branch modules. This is combined with state-of-the-art fluid solvers for fire, smoke, and cloud dynamics in which we incorporate novel formulations capturing heat transfer between tree modules and the environment. An overview of our framework is provided in Figure 3.

*/

3 概述

我们方法的主要动机是在森林范围上对野火进行真实建模和模拟。由于两个主要原因使这一目标具有挑战性。首先，建模真实的大规模植被场景通常需要生成大量的几何细节。其次，在分支层面上计算木材的热解，同时还将燃烧过程与流体动力学求解器耦合，以模拟火灾蔓延，这在计算上很困难，通常不会联合执行。

我们通过使用分支模块来表示植物的植被多尺度表示来应对这些挑战[Makowski等人，2019]。每个植物被定义为一组分支模块，这些模块因植物的发育及其与相邻植物的相互作用而局部适应，这一过程会产生单独且高度详细的分支结构。这种表示法的一个关键优点是，模块可以在同一个植物中实例化和重用，也可以用于生态系统中的其他植物（图2）。

我们使用这种基于模块的表示来定义一种新的植物燃烧模型。与其他在网格元素规模上定义热解的方法不同[Pirk等人，2017年]，我们定义了单个分支模块的木材燃烧。这种抽象级别有两个主要优点。首先，这些模块允许我们定义模拟野火的详细程度。树可以用不同程度的细节表示，从仅几个粗略模块（其中每个模块仅表示几个分支段）到大量详细模块，这些模块可以生成具有高度视觉保真度的分支结构。其次，在模块级别计算燃烧可以保留单个植物的几何结构，同时可以处理大量树木。详细的几何表示对于真实模拟火灾在一棵树内以及整个森林中的传播非常重要。

最后，我们采用两种流体动力学模型来模拟火、烟和云。我们使用欧拉流体求解器来模拟火灾，并模拟其在生态系统中的传播。这样，火可以从一个模块转移到另一个模块，然后从一棵树转移到另一棵树。其次，我们使用最先进的云动力学模型来模拟大规模野火中出现的所谓火焰云，如图19所示。对于真实的野火，火云通常起着关键作用，因为它们阻挡了火势，从而阻碍了采取措施防止火势蔓延。因此，模拟火云大大增加了野火模拟的真实性。

总之，我们通过将基于模块的植被表示与在单个分支模块规模上运行的新型燃烧模型相耦合来模拟野火。这与用于火灾、烟雾和云动力学的最先进的流体求解器相结合，其中我们结合了捕捉树模块和环境之间热传递的新公式。图3概述了我们的框架。

4 方法

当固体燃料一旦达到点火温度就暴露于热中时，固体燃料开始燃烧。木材分解成炭和可燃气体（燃料）。
$$Wood+Heat\to Fuel+Char.$$

根据 Pirk等人 [2017]的解释, 质量的变化率 $dM/dt$ 可以描述为：
$$\frac{dM}{dt}+k(T_M)cA=0,\text{\hspace{1em}(1)}$$

其中$k$表示取决于温度$T_M$的反应速率。无量纲炭绝缘参数表示为$c$，热解前沿面积表示为$A$。$c$和$A$依赖于树的几何形状和燃烧过程中的变化。在Pirk的文章里[2017]，反应速率定义为：
$$k\left(T_{\mathcal{M}}\right)=\eta \cdot \{\begin{array}{ll}0& T_{\mathcal{M}}<T_0\\ S\left(\left(T_{\mathcal{M}}-T_0\right)/\left(T_1-T_0\right)\right)& T_0\le T_{\mathcal{M}}\le T_1\\ 1& T_{\mathcal{M}}>T_1\end{array},\text{\hspace{1em}(2)}$$
$\eta$是应用的常数，$S$函数：$x\mapsto 3x^2-2x^3$表示一个从0-1平滑插值的S型函数，温度介于$T_0=150^{。}C$和$T_1=450^{。}C$之间。我们引入了考虑风速的扩展反应速率,函数描述为以下公式。
$$\eta (u)=\left({\eta }_{\max }-1\right)S\left(u/u_{\mathrm{ref}}\right)+1\text{\hspace{1em}(3)}$$

函数的输出结果中，$\eta =1$表示没有风，$\eta ={\eta }_{max}$表示$u_{ref}$最大可以达到的发射速度。因此，吹风会增加反应速率和热量释放，从而可能出现火灾风暴。这涵盖了通常观察到的情况，即当氧气浓度升高时，向火中吹气会提高其温度并加速燃烧过程。

4.1 树的表现

不像Pirk等人[2017]，将树枝离散化为三角形表面网格，并将热解定义为通过向树支轴移动把原始状态的木材转化为碳化的前向传播，我们为把分支描述为截锥引入了更高层次的抽象。

利用分支的长度$l$以及半径为$r:=r^{(0)}$和$r^{{}^{\prime }}:=r^{(1)}$来表示截锥体，其横向表面区域可以使用公式4计算
$$A_{branch}=\pi (r+r^{{}^{\prime }})\sqrt{(r-r^{{}^{\prime }}{)}^2+l^2}\text{\hspace{1em}(4)}$$
体积
$$V_{branch}=\frac{\pi }{3}l(r^2+r{r}^{{}^{\prime }}+(r^{{}^{\prime }}{)}^2)\text{\hspace{1em}(5)}$$
质量
$$M_{branch}={\rho }_{wood}{V}_{branch}\text{\hspace{1em}(6)}$$
${\rho }_{wood}$表示木材的密度。

我们在模块级别模拟燃烧，这降低了复杂度进而使我们能够模拟野火。一个模块$\mathcal{M}$由相邻的截锥集合组成，一棵树由连接的模块集合定义，因此可以根据所需的详细程度分解为不同数量的模块。包含n棵树的森林定义为这些树的并集$\mathcal{F}:={\bigcup }_{i=1}^n\mathcal{T}$。

4.2 模块级别的燃烧

考虑单个分枝，质量损失率$dM/dt$已根据公式1以及$A=A_{branch}$(公式4)计算，分枝的半径$r$ 和 $r^{{}^{\prime }}$根据$\Delta M$调整。我们约束半径比例$\lambda :=r^{{}^{\prime }}/r$为一个固定的常量。燃烧的过程可以描述为一个映射
$$(r_t,\Delta M)\mapsto r_{t+\Delta t}(r_t,\Delta M)$$
$r_{t+\Delta t}$表示根据$\Delta M$质量损失率更新$r_t$半径，根据公式5-6，我们得到
$$(r_t,\Delta M)\mapsto r_{t+\Delta t}=\sqrt{\frac{3(M+\Delta M)}{\pi lp}\frac{1}{1+\lambda +{\lambda }^2}}\text{\hspace{1em}(7)}$$
$M$表示半径更新之前的原始质量，请注意$\Delta M\le 0$。$r_t^{{}^{\prime }}$更新的半径$r_{t+\Delta t}^{{}^{\prime }}$可以通过约束的比例计算。
$$r_{t+\Delta t}^{{}^{\prime }}:=\lambda r_{t+\Delta t}(r_t,\Delta M)\text{\hspace{1em}(8)}$$

由于燃烧是在每个模块的基础上模拟的，因此面积$A$必须计算为分支表面面积的总和。由于燃烧引起的质量变化$\Delta M$必须通过更新相应的半径分布在分支之间。自然，单个分支的质量和半径不能降低到零以下。

4.2.1 模块内半径更新

让$\mathcal{M}\in \mathcal{F}$作为一个模块，可以通过图$G_{\mathcal{M}}=(V,E)$描述,V表示节点集合，$E\subseteq V\times V$的边集合。由于模块是有根和相互连接的，在特定方向上生长，不包含循环，因此树状图是一个有根节点的有向有根树$v^{(0)}\in V$。.所有的$v^{(i)}\in V$,我们定义相应的半径$r:V\to {\mathbb{R}}^{\ge 0},v^{(i)}\mapsto r^{(i)}$,所有的$e^{(i)}=(v,v^{{}^{\prime }})\in E$,我们定义的分支长度$l:E\to {\mathbb{R}}^{\ge 0},e^{(i)}\mapsto l^{(i)}$，半径比例$\lambda :E\to {\mathbb{R}}^{\ge }\ge 0,e^{(i)}\mapsto {\lambda }^{(i)}:=r\left(v^{\prime }\right)/r(v)$。请注意根据树的Vinci规则$\lambda \le 1$[2014]。图4有说明。

图4.树状图模块$\mathcal{M}$的表示说明。

对于每一条边$e\in E$，我们根据公式5-6可以计算相应分枝的质量$M(e)$。模块M总的质量$M(\mathcal{M})={\sum }_{e\in E}M(e)$。使用下标索引符号表示时间，我们可以写为：

$$M\left({\mathcal{M}}_{t+\Delta t}\right)=\sum _{e\in E_{t+\Delta t}}M(e)\stackrel{!}{=}M\left({\mathcal{M}}_t\right)+\Delta M\text{\hspace{1em}(9)}$$
这表明模块总质量在半径更新之后$M\left({\mathcal{M}}_{t+\Delta t}\right)$与更新之前$M\left({\mathcal{M}}_t\right)$的差值$\Delta M$，使用公式5-6，我们可以重写公式9如下：

从根节点$v^0$到$v$节点的路径表示为$P(v)$，$G$是树状，对所有的节点$v\in V\setminus v^{(0)}$和$P(v^{(0)}):=\varnothing$，路径$P(v)$是唯一的定义。
模块$\mathcal{M}$中根节点的半径更新公式可以直接由公式10得到：
$$\left(r_t^{(0)},\Delta M\right)\mapsto r_{t+\Delta t}^{(0)}:=\sqrt{\frac{3}{\pi \rho }}{\psi }_{\mathcal{M}}\sqrt{M\left({\mathcal{M}}_t\right)+\Delta M}\text{\hspace{1em}(11)}$$
使用模型常量
$${\psi }_{\mathcal{M}}:={\sqrt{\sum _{e:=\left(v,v^{\prime }\right)\in E}l(e)\prod _{\bar{e}\in P(v)}\left({\lambda }^2(\bar{e})\right)\left(1+\lambda (e)+{\lambda }^2(e)\right)}}^{-1}$$
所有的$v\in V\setminus v^{(0)}$，我们可以应用
$$r_{t+\Delta t}^{(i)}:=\prod _{\bar{e}\in P\left(v^{(i)}\right)}(\lambda (\bar{e}))r_{t+\Delta t}^{(0)}\text{\hspace{1em}(12)}$$

如果模块$\mathcal{M}$完全只包含单个分枝，公式11-12可以简化为公式7-8的特殊示例。

4.2.2 连接节点处理

由于树由几个相互连接的模块表示，因此我们区分模块内的内部节点和连接节点。连接节点是由不同模块共享的节点（图2）。所有其他节点都标记为内部节点。对于连接节点，我们存储多个半径信息，即共享连接节点的每个模块在连接节点存储其自身的半径，并仅相对于其自身的质量损失率$\Delta M$独立于其他模块进行更新。但是，对于渲染每个节点都需要一个半径。为此，我们仅使用连接节点的平均半径。

4.2.3 碳化效应

根据Pirk等人[2017]，炭绝缘参数c必须与炭层厚度成比例设置。假设模块内所有分支的炭层厚度相同。

4.3 风

风被描述为与时间相关的矢量值速度场$u:(x,t)\mapsto u(x,t)$，时间$t\in {\mathbb{R}}^{\ge 0}$和位置$x\in {\mathbb{R}}^3$返回相应的局部流$u(x,t)\in {\mathbb{R}}^3$。$u$的时间演化由Navier-Stokes方程描述[Bridson 2008]
$$\frac{\partial \mathbf{u}}{\partial t}+\mathbf{u}\cdot \nabla \mathbf{u}+\frac{1}{{\rho }_{\text{air }}}\nabla p=v\nabla \cdot \nabla \mathbf{u}+\mathbf{b}+f_d+f\text{\hspace{1em}(13)}$$

覆盖动量机会和连续性方程
$$▽\cdot u=0\text{\hspace{1em}(14)}$$
确保质量的保存，在公式13中，空气的密度表示为 ${\rho }_{air}$，压强表示为$p$，动粘滞性表示为$v$。公式13中左侧的第二项描述的现象是由压强下平流导致的。右侧第一项是描述的粘度。浮力考虑的是力$b\in {\mathbb{R}}^3$.。另外树影响影响风，风力通过阻力捕获。
$$f_d=\frac{{\rho }_{air}}{2}{c}_d{A}_{cs}{||u||}^2\frac{u}{||u||}\text{\hspace{1em}(15)}$$
$c_d$表示阻力系数，横截面积$A_{cs}$，所有外部力混合在一起描述为一个合力$f\in {\mathbb{R}}^3$。请注意在公式2-3中风速$u:=||u||$会直接影像燃烧过程的反应速率。

4.4 烟

根据Pirk等人[2017]的说法，我们将烟雾考虑在内，他们根据质量损失和水的蒸发按比例添加烟雾。定义与时间相关的标量场
$$q_s:(x,t)\mapsto q_s(x,t)$$
在给定时间$t\in {\mathbb{R}}^{\ge 0}$和位置$x\in {\mathbb{R}}^3$描述烟的密度，他的时间演化可以描述为
$$\frac{\partial q_s}{\partial t}+\mathbf{u}\cdot \nabla q_s=-s_M\frac{\mathrm{d}M}{\mathrm{d}t}-s_W\frac{\mathrm{d}W}{\mathrm{d}t}\text{\hspace{1em}(16)}$$
$s_M$和$s_W$是烟的参数，Pirk等人通过$dW/dt=-w_T{T}_M$使用蒸发率$w_T$计算含水量。这是有问题的，因为如果模块完全不燃烧，也可能释放过多的水。当木材中的氢含量与大气中的氧结合时，只有燃烧的木材才会显著地将水蒸气释放到空气中。木材中的氢质量分数为6%，当两摩尔氢与一摩尔氧结合时，每1kg燃烧木材释放$c_{WM}$=0.5362kg水。因此，我们利用关系
$$\frac{dW}{dt}=c_{WM}\frac{dM}{dt}\text{\hspace{1em}(17)}$$

4.5 云和雨

略

4.6 热传递

环境温度可以描述为一个依赖时间的标量场
$$T:(x,t)\mapsto T(x,t)$$
给定时间$t$和位置$x$返回相应的环境温度$T(x,t)$。热传递采用以下关系进行建模，描述空气温度的时间演变
$$\frac{\partial T}{\partial t}+\mathbf{u}\cdot \nabla T=\alpha {\nabla }^{2}T-\gamma {\left(T-T_{\mathrm{amb}}\right)}^4-\tau \frac{\mathrm{d}M}{\mathrm{d}t}-\phi q_r\text{\hspace{1em}(21)}$$
当某个流体包沿着风的轨迹流动时，其时间温度变化由强度为$\alpha$的扩散分量和辐射冷却项$\gamma$的环境冷却分量描述【Nguyen等人，2002年】涉及固定的环境温度。
$T_{amb}:=T_{amb}(h)$ 在高度$h:=h(x)$
根据大气数据评估$x:=(x,y,h)$位置的环境温度[ISO-1975]，此外，模块到空气的热传递是通过调整空气温度与质量损失成比例$\tau$来解决的.考虑雨的密度$q_r$以解决雨的冷却效应。两种物理效应导致了这种冷却：吸收热量进入冷雨滴和蒸发。由于蒸发占主导地位，我们将在这里重点讨论这个问题。潜在的物理机制是，离开雨滴的水分子必须克服其他水分子的吸引力，从而导致温度下降。该蒸发过程的驱动势是相对湿度${\varphi }_{rel}=q_v/q_{v,sat}$，即局部蒸汽质量比$q_v$和周围空气局部饱和蒸汽质量比$q_{v,sat}$[Hädrich et al. 2020]。当空气是饱和的，如$q_v=q_{v,sat}$或者${\varphi }_{rel}=1$,蒸发停止和没有冷却发生。降雨的蒸发率$E_r$
$$E_r=q_{r}wmax(q_{v,sat}-q_v,0)\text{\hspace{1em}(22)}$$
$w$表示蒸发率系数，饱和蒸汽混合比由下式给出：
$$q_{v,\mathrm{sat}}(T,p)=\frac{380.16}{p}\exp \left(\frac{17.67T}{T+243.50}\right)\text{\hspace{1em}(23)}$$

对于给定的温度和压力，分别为帕斯卡[Yau和Rogers 1996]。蒸发吸收潜热L，潜热$L$用于冷却热容量为$c_p$的周围空气，因此我们可以得到方程（21）中$\phi$的近似表达式：

$$\phi =\frac{L}{c_p}\frac{E_r}{q_r}=\frac{L}{c_p}w\max \left(q_{v,\mathrm{sat}}-q_v,0\right)\text{\hspace{1em}(24)}$$
另外对于环境温度字段$T$，我们引入了一个模型温度函数
$$T_{\mathcal{F}}:(\mathcal{M},t)\mapsto T_{\mathcal{F}}(\mathcal{M},t)=:T_{\mathcal{M}}(t)$$
给定时间$t\in {\mathbb{R}}^{\ge 0}$和模型$\mathcal{M}\in \mathcal{F}$，返回模型的表面温度$T_{\mathcal{M}}(t)\in \mathbb{R}$。$T_{\mathcal{M}}$的变化通过模拟相邻模块之间的扩散以及周围空气的加热（例如，由火灾引起的）或由于温度导致的表面冷却来描述。
$$\frac{\partial T_{\mathcal{M}}}{\partial t}={\alpha }_{\mathcal{M}}{\nabla }^2{T}_{\mathcal{M}}+b\left(T-T_{\mathcal{M}}\right)\text{\hspace{1em}(25)}$$
应用扩散系数和温度系数${\alpha }_{\mathcal{M}}$和$b$。此外，我们还模拟了因雨水导致的模块表面冷却，这取决于从木材表面到覆盖水膜的热传递以及雨水的量。单位面积的水热通量可近似为
$${\dot{q}}^{\prime \prime }=\bar{c}{\left(T_{\mathcal{M}}-T_{\text{sat }}\right)}^3\text{\hspace{1em}(26)}$$
使用$\bar{c}=0.1W{m}^{-2\circ }{C}^{-1}$和相应的水的饱和温度$T_{sat}=100^{\circ }C$ [Carey 1992]。该能量从模块中提取并添加到相邻的雨水阶段，直到所有雨水$q_r$蒸发成$q_v$。因此，木材的温度降低。$U_{\mathcal{M}}$存储在体积为$V_{\mathcal{M}}$和密度为${\rho }_{\mathcal{M}}$的模块$M$中，指定的热容量为
$$U_{\mathcal{M}}=V_{\mathcal{M}}{\rho }_{\mathcal{M}}{c}_{\mathcal{M}}{T}_{\mathcal{M}}^{\prime }\text{, }\text{\hspace{1em}(27)}$$

$T_{\mathcal{M}}^{\prime }$表示绝对温度。对于木材，我们应用$c_{\mathcal{M}}\approx 2.5{\mathrm{kJ}}^{\circ }{\mathrm{C}}^{-1}\mathrm{kg}$。模型温度与能量的变化率描述为：
$$\frac{\mathrm{d}{T}_{\mathcal{M}}}{\mathrm{d}t}=\frac{\mathrm{d}{U}_{\mathcal{M}}}{\mathrm{d}t}\frac{1}{V_{\mathcal{M}}{\rho }_{\mathcal{M}}{c}_{\mathcal{M}}}\text{\hspace{1em}(28)}$$
能量的变化出现在模型表面的热传递
$$\frac{\mathrm{d}{U}_{\mathcal{M}}}{\mathrm{d}t}={\dot{q}}^{\prime \prime }{A}_{\mathcal{M}}=\dot{Q}=\bar{c}{A}_{\mathcal{M}}{\left(T_{\mathcal{M}}-T_{\mathrm{sat}}\right)}^3\text{\hspace{1em}(29)}$$
根据这些我们扩展了公式(25)
$$\frac{\partial T_{\mathcal{M}}}{\partial t}={\alpha }_{\mathcal{M}}{\nabla }^2{T}_{\mathcal{M}}+b\left(T-T_{\mathcal{M}}\right)-\frac{\bar{c}{A}_{\mathcal{M}}{\left(T_{\mathcal{M}}-T_{\text{sat }}\right)}^3}{V_{\mathcal{M}}{\rho }_{\mathcal{M}}{c}_{\mathcal{M}}}\text{\hspace{1em}(30)}$$
热传导的另外一个效应是，降雨阶段的蒸发率$\dot{m_r}=\dot{Q}/L$,直到所有的降雨与模块接触被消耗并变成蒸汽。降雨蒸发的结果
$$V_r=\max \left(\frac{\dot{Q}}{L}{\rho }_{\mathrm{air}},0\right)\text{\hspace{1em}(31)}$$
在存在树的情况下，必须将其添加到蒸发率的传输方程（18）中，并从雨水比的传输方程式（20）中减去。

总之，我们的热模型传输了温度场，因此考虑了对流传热，包括模块和大气之间的传热。考虑了辐射冷却[Nguyen等人，2002年]，但由于最近的研究[Finney等人，2015年]发现，与对流传热相比，辐射加热可以忽略不计。

5 算法

上一节中描述的模型为我们的模拟器提供了基础。整个过程总结在算法1中。此外，图5给出了一个概述，指出了不同数量的相关性。

5.1 数值程序

我们必须区分在模块空间$\mathcal{F}$内进行的计算和在空间域$\Omega \in {\mathbb{R}}^3$离散化网格上进行的计算。如前所述，我们将模块表示为$\mathcal{M}\in \mathcal{F}$，并设置一组网格点$\mathcal{D}(\Omega )$，表示为$\Omega$离散化。我们应用单一的统一网格尺度$\Delta x$。我们考虑到非平坦地面地形，因此引入了高度图$\mathcal{H}:(x,y)\mapsto \mathcal{H}(x,y)$下边界$\Omega$:

$$\partial {\Omega }_{\text{bottom }}:=\left\{(x,y,\mathcal{H}(x,y){)}^{\top }\in \Omega \right\}$$

算法1中总结的过程开始于对所有模块$\mathcal{M}\in \mathcal{F}$的迭代，根据等式(1)更新其质量。为此，反应速率$k$，必须根据公式(2)计算给定模块温度下的阈值速度$u_{ref}=15m/s$，对应于强风将反应速率提高了${\eta }_{max}$。的局部速度$u=||u||$计算为包含（部分）相应的模块。根据等式（11–12），质量更新之后是半径更新。然后，根据等式(30)计算模块温度(M)，并根据等式(17)估计释放的水含量。

请注意，质量$M=M(\mathcal{M})$和水含量$W=W(\mathcal{M})$是按每个模块计算的，必须传输到网格中，以更新温度(方程式(21))和水蒸气密度(方程式(18))，并模拟烟雾(方程式(16))。因此，我们引入了含时标量场
$$M:(x,t)\mapsto M(x,t)andW:(x,t)\mapsto W(x,t),$$
相对于网格点中的固定点在时间$t\in {\mathbb{R}}^{\ge 0}$返回质量$M:(x,t)\mapsto M(x,t)$和水量$W:(x,t)\mapsto W(x,t)$
这些量是通过考虑所有模块M来计算的，这些模块$M$(部分)与$x$周围的单元重叠，将它们的质量$M$或水含量$W$相加，并通过系数$(1-||x-center(M)||/\Delta x)$加权，其中中心$(M)$表示$M$的质量中心。基于此，可以根据方程(21)以及Hädrich等人的欧拉流体解算器[2020]更新温度$T$。这里，我们将根据方程(15)的阻力$f_d$计算为方程(13)中的外力$f$。我们在地面应用无滑移边界条件，在顶部应用自由滑移条件，在侧面应用混合边界条件[Hädrich等人，2020]。此外，由于数值耗散引起的非物理阻尼消除了令人感兴趣的湍流流动特征，涡度限制被包括在内。为了避免这种情况，应用Steinhoff和Underhill[1994]引入的涡度约束力，将耗散的能量注入系统。根据Fedkiw等人[2001]，可以使用参数n调整涡度约束的强度。

最后，我们检查哪些模块M完全烧毁（即$M(\mathcal{M})=0$），并将它们从模块空间$\mathcal{F}$中移除，以及它们在树域中的子级。

5.2 实施

我们在C++/CUDA框架内实现了算法1。当更新质量、含水量和温度时，我们采用常规正向！有限差异。此外，Hädrich等人[2020]好心地提供了他们的云模拟器的源代码，我们将其扩展到了公式（18），包括了与水含量变化成比例的附加项，以及公式（22）给出的A和公式（31）给出的+A的新公式。请注意，它们的实现利用了潜在温度的概念，因此，在使用它们的求解器时，我们必须将绝对温度值转换为潜在温度，反之亦然。

出于渲染目的，使用OpenGL/GLSL评估光线穿过体积时的光线，采用了体光线投射[Pharr等人2016]。树几何体和树叶在几何体着色器中动态处理。对于与体积相交的每个像素，将返回不透明度和颜色并实时显示在屏幕上，这允许对我们的模拟进行交互式探索。

6 结果

我们概述了根据如前一节所述实现的算法1模拟的结果。最初的树木几何图形是使用Makowski等人[2019]开发的生态系统模拟器生成的。他们提供了他们的软件。表1中提供了本节中呈现的不同场景的概述，包括相关参数。场景可以交互模拟，甚至可以实时模拟。表1中列出的计算时间是在NVIDIA®GeForce®GTX 1080上运行我们的模拟框架的最新台式计算机上测量的。

6.1 火灾蔓延

使用详细的分支几何结构，我们可以真实地捕捉三维火灾蔓延，而其他表示或统计模型无法轻易覆盖三维火灾蔓延。例如，当另一棵树下的一棵树燃烧时，火可以垂直蔓延，如图6所示。这不会发生在统计模型等简化的空间表示中。我们使用恒定的水平风场进一步证明了森林中火灾蔓延的影响。我们改变地面地形的坡度。正如预期的那样，与平坦地形或斜坡相比，正坡的火灾蔓延速度更快。这在图8中进行了定性说明，并在图11（左侧）中进行了定量评估，表明随着斜率的增加，传播时间呈指数下降。

/**
## 6.2 Mesoscale Representation
The mesoscale representation for trees enables us to model collections of trees with detailed branch geometry for individual modules.Specifically, modeling trees with modules enables controlling the level of detail. Neither coarse-scale nor fine-scale representations offer these two benefits at once. Furthermore, trees dynamically adapt to their individual environment, which cannot simply be represented by fixed proxy shapes such as cones. Modules capture both the self-organization as well as the recursive attribute of tree architecture, thus leading to a more realistic geometric representation.

We evaluate our module-based representation by comparing simulation results using different numbers of modules. As shown in Figure 7 (top), we provide a qualitative comparison by simulating an individual tree as well as an ecosystem. A quantitative comparison is given in Figure 7 (bottom) monitoring the mass loss over time for different numbers of modules.

## 6.3 Coarse-scale Comparison
To showcase the impact of taking detailed branch geometry into account, we simulate fire spread within an ecosystem composed of several conifers arranged on a flat terrain. As shown in Figure 9,the fire spread is simulated with our mesoscale approach as well as by using a simplified coarse-scale representation which mimics certain properties of the ecosystem on a higher level of abstraction.Each tree is represented as a single cylindrically shaped trunk whose mass corresponds to the mass of the whole tree in the mesoscale representation. In particular, the wood density is adopted, the trunk’s height corresponds to the height of the tree in the mesoscale representation, and the trunk’s diameter is adjusted in a way that the trunk’s mass equals the sum of the tree’s module masses. While using the mesoscale approach, some time is required until a single tree potentially burns completely, the coarse-scale representation results in a direct inflammation of the whole trunk which immediate starts to burn brightly as detailed branch geometry is not considered.As we mimic the original tree widths, the fire propagates remarkably fast through the ecosystem resulting in an unrealistic wildfire scenario. This is quantitatively evaluated in Figure 11 (right) which shows the relative change of mass within the whole ecosystem. It can be observed that the coarse-scale representation results in a fast combustion of a major part of the ecosystem while the mesoscale approach leads to a distinctively different result.

6.4 Ecosystem Properties
Our framework allows for studying the in&uence of different ecosystem properties. First, we investigate the impact of different tree types as illustrated in Figure 10. In particular, we simulate the temporal evolution of a wildfire within an ecosystem which contains conifers and deciduous trees. We observe that the deciduous trees are more fire resistant compared to the conifers, which is partially caused by their higher density. This results in a characteristic change of the forest pattern caused by the wildfire, changing the ratio of conifers and deciduous trees within the ecosystem.

Moreover, we study the impact of the forest cover (i.e. the relative amount of land covered by trees) on the wild!re. As reported in the literature [Abades et al. 2014], we observe that below a specific forest coverage, fire spread is inhibited as there is not sufficient biomass to propagate the !re. In contrast, once a speci!c threshold is reached, the fire spreads intensively. The graph in Figure 12 (left) shows the relative number of trees with burned modules for different forest cover. The corresponding ecosystems are shown in Figure 14.

6.5 Wildfire Management
Modern wildfire management comprises fire prevention and response as well as recovery work. To evaluate the human impact on wildfires, our model fllows us to interactively extinguish fire by manually distributing fire retardant as well as by setting up fire barriers. This is qualitatively illustrated in Figure 15. Moreover, we quantitatively evaluate the impact of fire barriers using different barrier widths as shown in Figure 12 (right). Once a specific threshold width of   about 7.9 m in our example is reached, the fire is not able to jump over the barrier. Please note that the discrete jump in Figure 12 (right) is expected as flying sparks are ignored in our model.

6.6 Atmospheric Conditions
We study the impact of different atmospheric conditions by varying the speed of a constant horizontal wind field as shown in Figure 17.This is quantitatively evaluated in Figure 13 showing the relative number of burning trees (including already burned trees) over time.As expected, the fire spreads faster with increasing wind speed,which is caused by the propagation of flames due to wind as well as the fact that fire increases its temperature and accelerates the combustion process if wind is blowing oxygen into the fire (see Eq. (3)).Consequently, the relative number of burned trees increases faster in the beginning of the wildfire when wind is stronger. However, as it can be observed from Figure 13 as well, wind also blows the fire in a dominant direction, potentially hindering it to spread isotropically,resulting is less forest damage in the long-term.


6.7 National Park Wildfire
We simulate a complex wildfire originating from a randomly positioned fire source which could be caused by a lightning strike.The fire spreads within the valley around Half Dome in California’s Yosemite National Park as shown in Figure 1. This scene contains about 68K trees composed of about 75K individual modules. The simulation runs at interactive rates.


6.8 Flammagenitus Clouds

Flammagenitus clouds are dense grayish to brown cumuliform clouds which potentially emerge from wildfires or volcanic eruptions. While it may seem counterintuitive that water vapor condenses to form clouds in the vicinity of a hot flame, Eq. (17) reveals that burning wood releases large amounts of water that supersaturate the air above a fire. The effect of flammagenitus clouds on wildfires is two-fold and dependent on the size and intensity of the fire. Flammagenitus clouds can condense, resulting in rainfall contributing to potentially extinguishing the fire. On the other hand, huge wildfires can produce growing flammagenitus clouds (cumulonimbus &ammagenitus) which can trigger thunderstorms from which lightning can become an additional fire source [Dowdy et al. 2017]. Figure 18 shows the simulation of a wildfire scenario from which a flammagenitus cloud emerges whose rainfall finally extinguishes the fire. The scene is rendered from a cross-sectional perspective highlighting water vapor and condensed cloud water showcasing the formation of the flammagenitus cloud.A more complex scene comprising a huge flammagenitus cloud over a wildfire is shown in Figure 19. This scene comprises 120K individual trees grown on a mountainous terrain. It runs at interactive rates. As a comparison, a photography of a real flammagenitus cloud is shown in Figure 16. While dark smoke is present at lower altitudes, the condensation of water at higher altitudes results in a white cumuliform cloud. This can be observed in our simulation as well as in the photography

*/

6.2 中尺度表示

树木的中尺度表示使我们能够为各个模块建模具有详细分支几何结构的树木集合。具体来说，使用模块对树进行建模可以控制细节级别。粗尺度表示和细尺度表示都不能同时提供这两个好处。此外，树动态地适应其各自的环境，而这不能简单地用固定的代理形状（如圆锥体）来表示。模块捕捉了树结构的自组织和递归属性，从而导致更真实的几何表示。

我们通过比较使用不同数量模块的模拟结果来评估基于模块的表示。如图7（顶部）所示，我们通过模拟单个树木和生态系统进行了定性比较。图7（底部）对不同数量模块随时间的质量损失进行了定量比较。

6.3 粗略比例比较

为了展示将详细的树枝几何结构考虑在内的影响，我们模拟了一个由多个针叶林组成的生态系统中的火灾蔓延，这些针叶林分布在平坦的地形上。如图9所示，通过我们的中尺度方法以及使用简化的粗略尺度表示来模拟火灾蔓延，该表示在更高的抽象层次上模拟了生态系统的某些特性。每棵树被表示为单个圆柱形树干，其质量对应于中尺度表示中整棵树的质量。特别是，采用木材密度，树干的高度与中尺度表示中的树的高度相对应，树干的直径以树干的质量等于树的模块质量之和的方式进行调整。在使用中尺度方法时，需要一段时间，直到一棵树可能完全燃烧，粗尺度表示会导致整个树干的直接炎症，由于没有考虑详细的树枝几何结构，因此立即开始明亮燃烧。当我们模拟原始的树木宽度时，大火在生态系统中传播得非常快，导致了不现实的野火场景。这在图11（右）中进行了定量评估，图中显示了整个生态系统中质量的相对变化。可以观察到，粗尺度表示导致生态系统的主要部分快速燃烧，而中尺度方法导致截然不同的结果。

6.4 生态系统属性

我们的框架允许研究不同生态系统属性的影响。首先，我们调查了不同树木类型的影响，如图10所示。特别是，我们模拟了包含针叶树和落叶树的生态系统中野火的时间演变。我们观察到，与针叶树相比，落叶树更耐火，这部分是因为它们的密度更高。这导致了野火引起的森林格局的特征性变化，改变了生态系统中针叶树和落叶树的比例。

此外，我们还研究了森林覆盖（即树木覆盖的相对面积）对野生动物的影响！重新。如文献[Abades等人2014]所述，我们观察到，在特定森林覆盖率以下，由于没有足够的生物量传播火灾，火灾蔓延受到抑制。相反，一旦达到特定阈值，火灾就会迅速蔓延。图12（左）中的图表显示了不同森林覆盖率下具有燃烧模块的树木的相对数量。相应的生态系统如图14所示。

6.5 野火管理

现代野火管理包括火灾预防和应对以及恢复工作。为了评估人类对野火的影响，我们的模型允许我们通过手动分配阻燃剂以及设置防火屏障来交互灭火。图15定性地说明了这一点。此外，我们使用图12（右）所示的不同屏障宽度对防火屏障的影响进行了定量评估。在我们的示例中，一旦达到约7.9米的特定阈值宽度，火灾就无法越过障碍物。请注意，图12（右）中的离散跳跃是预期的，因为我们的模型中忽略了飞行火花。

6.6 大气条件

我们通过改变恒定水平风场的速度来研究不同大气条件的影响，如图17所示。这在图13中进行了定量评估，显示了燃烧树木（包括已经燃烧的树木）随时间的相对数量。正如预期的那样，随着风速的增加，火灾蔓延得更快，这是由风引起的火焰传播以及如果风将氧气吹入火灾，火灾会增加其温度并加速燃烧过程这一事实造成的（见等式（3））。因此，在野火开始时，当风力较大时，被烧毁的树木的相对数量增加得更快。然而，从图13中也可以观察到，风也会将火吹向主导方向，可能会阻碍火向各向同性方向蔓延，从而减少长期的森林破坏。

6.7 国家公园野火

我们模拟了一场复杂的野火，它起源于一个随机定位的火源，可能是由雷击引起的。如图1所示，大火在加利福尼亚州约塞米蒂国家公园半穹顶附近的山谷中蔓延。这一场景包含约68K棵树木，由约75K个独立模块组成。模拟以交互速率运行。

6.8 火焰云

火焰云是密集的灰棕色积云，可能来自野火或火山爆发。虽然水蒸气在热火焰附近凝结成云似乎违反直觉，但方程式（17）揭示了燃烧木材释放出大量水，使火上方的空气过饱和。火烈鸟云对野火的影响是双重的，取决于火势的大小和强度。火焰云会凝结，导致降雨，有助于灭火。另一方面，巨大的野火会产生不断增长的火焰云（积雨云和火焰），这会引发雷暴，闪电会成为额外的火源[Dowdy等人，2017]。图18显示了野火场景的模拟，从中出现了一团火焰云，其降雨最终扑灭了大火。该场景是从横截面透视图渲染的，突出了水蒸气和凝结的云水，显示了火烈鸟云的形成。图19显示了一个更复杂的场景，包括野火上的巨大火烈鸟云。该场景包括生长在山区的120K棵树木。它以交互速率运行。作为对比，图16显示了一个真实的火烈鸟云的照片。虽然在较低的海拔高度存在黑烟，但在较高的海拔高度，水的凝结形成了白色的积云。这可以在我们的模拟和照片中观察到。

/**
7 DISCUSSION
An important result of analytical studies on forest fires (e.g. using percolation models) is that the geometric distribution of vegetation in space is a major determinant of fire spread. Consequently, the predictive power of wildfire simulators depends on detailed tree form representations. Existing theoretical methods study wildfires by employing coarse tree representations, such as 2D grids, voxels or cones [Mendoza et al. 2019]. In contrast, our method proposes a significantly more detailed representation of tree form based on branch modules. Our comparison to a coarse-scale model (Section 6.3) showcases the importance of detailed tree geometry.


Our simulation results indicate that wildfires are characterized by a tipping-point phenomenon. Specifically, we report that with increasing forest cover the burned tree ratio increases following a hill-shaped relation (Figure 12, left). Such a non-linear relation is well documented by simulations with percolation models [Abades et al. 2014]. Furthermore, let us compare our simulation results of evaluating the impact of wind speed on forest fires (Figure 13, left) with equivalent results of such a percolation model that expresses the effects of uniform wind (Figure 13, right). For this, we calculated the vegetation input (a 2D grid) for the percolation model based on the forest scene used in our simulation results. Qualitatively, both models exhibit a similar relation of wind speed on burned tree ratio.Specifically, burned tree ratios decrease with increasing wind for our method as well as for the percolation model.


Our model describes terrain-wind and tree-wind interaction by employing a state-of-the-art fluid solver. Due to boundary effects of the &uid domain this can readily result in turbulent air fllows.However, capturing turbulence caused by tree-wind interaction can be practically impeded as this is not captured adequately if the modules are smaller than the grid resolution. We leave validating turbulent air fllow for future work.

8 LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE WORK

We close with suggestions for multiple avenues of future work. A common phenomenon associated with tree combustion is fire spread on the ground facilitated by grass, branch litter, and undergrowth vegetation as modeled by Kapp et al. [2020]. An individual-based representation for these elements would signi!cantly increase the simulation time of our method, which is why we ignored it in the present work. Another major mediator of fire spread of wildfires are sparks flying through the air. The processes underlying the formation of sparks happen at spatial scales much smaller than the processes considered in our model. However, an accurate averaged representation of flying sparks would improve the realism of fire spread in our approach. Another path would be to include the effect of tree resin as this highly &ammable substance is an ideal natural fuel for starting fires and even forms explosive mixtures with air. On another trajectory, the integration of lightning effects into the model would be attractive to capture their impact on wildfires as,e.g., flammagenitus clouds can trigger a thunderstorm potentially initiating another fire. This forms a positive feedback loop which would benefit from computational analysis.


Another important aspect for future work is including realistic tree dynamics. To simulate this plausibly, we would have to take the influence of wind on the trees into account. This would allow to capture branch modules swaying in the wind. One option could be to utilize the concept of Cosserat rods [Deul et al. 2018; Michels et al.2015] which has already been applied to simulate tree dynamics [Pirk et al. 2017] on a branch level and modify it in order to directly act on the level of modules.


9 CONCLUSION
We have introduced a novel method for modeling and simulating wildfires. Our method employs branch modules as an effcient geometric representation for tree models that provides us with conplex and realistic branching structures for individual trees and consequently entire forests. We use this representation to define a novel combustion model for plants that allows us to capture various effects to realistically simulate the pyrolysis of wood, including char insulation, mass loss, and heat transfer. We have shown that our method can be used to realistically capture the fire spread on terrain with varying vegetation occupancy. Furthermore, by using a physically plausible model for &uid dynamics of the atmosphere we can capture the emergent fire spread over terrain topography. By coupling combustion, fire and atmosphere models, we have been able to capture the formation of flammagenitus clouds.


In summary, our method enables the exploration of complex wildfire scenarios. We have been able to simulate scenes with more than 100K individual trees represented by complex and detailed geometry at interactive rates. Our approach is scalable to even larger forests when compromising interactivity. This would be justifiable as we see the main contribution of our work in improving physical and biological realism of wildfires. To perform high-fidelity simulations of recent real wildfires, our model has to be extended by including fire spread on the ground facilitated by grass, branch litter, and undergrowth vegetation, taking the role of leaves into account, and including sparks flying through the air. Continuing research in this direction is an exciting avenue for applying our methodology.


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported and funded by KAUST through the baseline funding of the Computational Sciences Group within the Visual Computing Center. The authors are thankful to Miłosz Makowski and Weronika Skowrońska who generated the initial ecosystems.The insightful discussions with Jorge Alejandro Amador Herrera and Franziska Lissel as well as the reviewers’ valuable comments that improved the manuscript are gratefully acknowledged.


*/

7 讨论

森林火灾分析研究（例如使用渗流模型）的一个重要结果是，植被在空间中的几何分布是火灾蔓延的主要决定因素。因此，野火模拟器的预测能力取决于详细的树形表示。现有的理论方法通过使用粗糙的树表示来研究野火，如2D网格、体素或圆锥体[Mondoza等人2019]。相比之下，我们的方法提出了基于分支模块的更详细的树形表示。我们与粗略比例模型（第6.3节）的比较表明了详细的树木几何结构的重要性。

我们的模拟结果表明，野火具有临界点现象的特征。具体地说，我们报告说，随着森林覆盖率的增加，烧毁树木的比例按照山形关系增加（图12，左侧）。这种非线性关系通过渗流模型的模拟得到了很好的证明[Abades等人，2014]。此外，让我们将评估风速对森林火灾影响的模拟结果（图13，左图）与表达均匀风影响的渗流模型的等效结果（图13，右图）进行比较。为此，我们基于模拟结果中使用的森林场景，计算了渗流模型的植被输入（2D网格）。定性地说，两种模型都表现出风速与烧毁树木比率的相似关系。具体地说，对于我们的方法和渗流模型，烧毁树木的比率随着风力的增加而降低。

我们的模型通过使用最先进的流体解算器来描述地形风和树风相互作用。由于流体域的边界效应，这很容易导致湍流气流。然而，捕捉由树风相互作用引起的湍流实际上会受到阻碍，因为如果模块小于网格分辨率，则无法充分捕捉湍流。我们将验证湍流气流留作将来的工作。

8 限制和未来工作

最后，我们对未来工作的多种途径提出了建议。与树木燃烧相关的一个常见现象是，如Kapp等人[2020]所建模的，草、树枝凋落物和林下植被促进了地面上的火灾蔓延。这些元素的基于个人的表示将非常重要！显著增加了我们方法的模拟时间，这就是我们在当前工作中忽略它的原因。野火蔓延的另一个主要媒介是空中飞溅的火花。火花形成的基本过程发生在比我们模型中考虑的过程小得多的空间尺度上。然而，飞行火花的精确平均表示将提高我们方法中火焰传播的真实性。另一个途径是包括树树脂的作用，因为这种高度易燃的物质是引发火灾的理想天然燃料，甚至与空气形成爆炸性混合物。在另一个轨迹上，将闪电效应集成到模型中对于捕捉它们对野火的影响是很有吸引力的，例如，火烈鸟云可能引发雷暴，可能引发另一场火灾。这形成了一个正反馈回路，它将从计算分析中受益。

未来工作的另一个重要方面是包括现实的树动力学。为了合理地模拟这种情况，我们必须考虑风对树木的影响。这将允许捕获在风中摇摆的分支模块。一种选择是利用Cosserat杆的概念[Deul等人，2018；Michels等人，2015年]，该概念已经应用于在分支层面上模拟树木动力学[Pirk等人，2017年]，并对其进行修改，以便直接作用于模块层面。

9 结论

我们介绍了一种新的野火建模和模拟方法。我们的方法使用分支模块作为树模型的有效几何表示，为单个树和整个森林提供了复杂和真实的分支结构。我们使用这种表示法为植物定义了一个新的燃烧模型，该模型允许我们捕捉各种效果，以真实地模拟木材的热解，包括木炭隔热、质量损失和传热。我们已经表明，我们的方法可以用于真实地捕捉不同植被占用率的地形上的火灾蔓延。此外，通过使用一个物理上合理的大气流体动力学模型，我们可以捕捉地形地形上的突发火灾蔓延。通过耦合燃烧、火和大气模型，我们已经能够捕捉到火焰云的形成。

总之，我们的方法可以探索复杂的野火场景。我们已经能够以交互速率模拟由复杂和详细的几何体表示的超过100K棵单独树木的场景。我们的方法可以扩展到更大的森林，但不影响交互性。这是合理的，因为我们看到我们的工作在改善野火的物理和生物现实方面的主要贡献。为了对最近的真实野火进行高保真模拟，我们的模型必须进行扩展，包括草地、树枝凋落物和林下植被促成的地面火灾蔓延，考虑到树叶的作用，并包括空中飞溅的火花。在这个方向上继续研究是应用我们方法论的一个令人兴奋的途径。

致谢

这项工作由KAUST通过视觉计算中心内计算科学小组的基线资金支持和资助。作者们感谢米沃斯·马科夫斯基和沃罗尼卡·斯科沃伦斯卡，他们创造了最初的生态系统。感谢与Jorge Alejandro Amador Herrera和Franziska Lissel的深入讨论，以及审稿人对改进手稿的宝贵意见。