【二次型】

二次型定义

设有$n$个变量$x_1,x_2,\cdots ,x_n$的二次齐次函数：

$$\begin{gathered} f(x_1,x_2,\cdots ,x_n)=a_{11}{x}_1^2+a_{12}{x}_2^2+\cdots +a_{nn}{x}_n^2+ \\ 2a_{12}{x}_1{x}_2+2a_{13}{x}_1{x}_3+2a_{n-1,n}{x}_{n-1}{x}_n \end{gathered}$$

称为二次型。

若$f=k_1{y}_1^2+k_2{y}_2^2+\cdots +k_n{y}_n^2$，只含平方项的二次型，称为二次型的标准形。

若系数$k_1,k_2,\cdots ,k_n$只在$-1,0,1$三个数中取值，如：

$$f=y_1^2+\cdots +y_p^2-y_{p+1}^2-\cdots -y_r^2$$

称为二次型的规范形。

二次型可以用矩阵记作：

$$f=X^{T}AX$$

其中$A$是对称矩阵，称为二次型$f$的矩阵，$A$的秩称为二次型$f$的秩。

习题

1、二次型$f=x^2-3z^2-4xy+yz$用矩阵表示。

解：

$$f=(x,y,z)\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& -2& 0\\ -2& 0& \frac{1}{2}\\ 0& \frac{1}{2}& -3\end{array}\right]\left(\begin{array}{c}x\\ y\\ z\end{array}\right)$$

合同

设$A,B$为$n$阶矩阵，若有可逆矩阵$C$，使$B=C^{T}AC$，则$A$与$B$合同。

若$A$为对称矩阵，则$B=C^{T}AC$也为对称矩阵，且$R(A)=R(B)$。

习题

1、下列矩阵中，与矩阵：

$$A=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 2& 0\\ 2& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right]$$

合同的是(B)。

(A)$\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right]$ (B)$\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& -1\end{array}\right]$ C)$\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& -1& 0\\ 0& 0& -1\end{array}\right]$ (D)$\left[\begin{array}{ccc}-1& 0& 0\\ 0& -1& 0\\ 0& 0& -1\end{array}\right]$

解：

$$\begin{gathered} |A-\lambda E|=\left|\begin{array}{ccc}1-\lambda & 2& 0\\ 2& 1-\lambda & 0\\ 0& 0& 1-\lambda \end{array}\right|=(1-\lambda )\left|\begin{array}{cc}1-\lambda & 2\\ 2& 1-\lambda \end{array}\right| \\ =(1-\lambda )(\lambda -3)(\lambda +1)=0 \\ \Rightarrow {\lambda }_1=1,{\lambda }_2=3,{\lambda }_3=-1 \\ \Rightarrow \text{正惯性指数为2} \\ \Rightarrow \text{负惯性指数为1} \end{gathered}$$

性质

任给二次型$f={\sum }_{i=1}^n{a}_{ij}{x}_i{x}_j(a_{ij}=a_{ji})$，总有正交变换$x=Py$，使$f$化为标准形：

$$f={\lambda }_1{y}_1^2+{\lambda }_2{y}_2^2+\cdots +{\lambda }_n{y}_n^2$$

其中${\lambda }_1,{\lambda }_2,\cdots ,{\lambda }_n$是$f$的矩阵$A=(a_{ij})$的特征值。

任给$n$元二次型$f(x)=x^{T}Ax(A^T=A)$，总有可逆变换$x=Cz$，使$f(z)$为规范形。

二次型的标准形中正系数的个数称为二次型的正惯性指数；
二次型的标准形中负系数的个数称为二次型的负惯性指数。

设二次型$f(x)=x^{T}Ax$，若对$\forall x\ne 0$，有$f(x)>0,(f(0)=0)$，则$f$为正定二次型，称$A$为正定的；
设二次型$f(x)=x^{T}Ax$，若对$\forall x\ne 0$，有$f(x)<0,(f(0)=0)$，则$f$为负定二次型，称$A$为负定的。

$n$元二次型$f=x^{T}Ax$为正定的充要条件是：

• 它的标准形的$n$个系数全为正；
• 它的规范形的$n$个系数全为1；
• 它的正惯性指数为$n$。

对称矩阵$A$为正定的充要条件：

• $A$的特征值全为正。

习题

1、判定二次型$f=-5x^2-6y^2-4z^2+4xy+4xz$的正定性。

解：

$$\begin{gathered} A=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}-5& 2& 2\\ 2& -6& 0\\ 2& 0& -4\end{array}\right] \\ \Rightarrow {\lambda }_1+{\lambda }_2+{\lambda }_3=-15 \\ \Rightarrow {\lambda }_i\text{不全}>0 \\ \Rightarrow A\text{为负定} \end{gathered}$$

2、求一个正交变换$x=Py$，把二次型：

$$f=-2x_1{x}_2+2x_1{x}_3+2x_2{x}_3$$

化为标准形。(对角化)

解：

$$\begin{gathered} A=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}0& -1& 1\\ -1& 0& 1\\ 1& 1& 0\end{array}\right] \\ |A-\lambda E|=\left|\begin{array}{ccc}-\lambda & -1& 1\\ -1& -\lambda & 1\\ 1& 1& -\lambda \end{array}\right|=\left|\begin{array}{ccc}0& \lambda -1& 1-{\lambda }^2\\ 0& 1-\lambda & 1-\lambda \\ 1& 1& -\lambda \end{array}\right| \\ =\left|\begin{array}{cc}\lambda -1& 1-{\lambda }^2\\ 1-\lambda & 1-\lambda \end{array}\right|=(\lambda -1)(\lambda +2)(1-\lambda )=0 \\ \Rightarrow {\lambda }_1={\lambda }_2=1,{\lambda }_3=-2 \end{gathered}$$

(1) ${\lambda }_1={\lambda }_2=1$时，

$$\begin{gathered} \left[\begin{array}{ccc}-1& -1& 1\\ -1& -1& 1\\ 1& 1& -1\end{array}\right]\to \left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 1& -1\\ 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right] \\ \Rightarrow {\xi }_1=\left(\begin{array}{c}-1\\ 1\\ 0\end{array}\right),{\xi }_2=\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ 0\\ 1\end{array}\right) \end{gathered}$$

将${\xi }_1,{\xi }_2$正交化，

$$\begin{gathered} {\eta }_1=\left(\begin{array}{c}-1\\ 1\\ 0\end{array}\right) \\ {\eta }_2={\xi }_2-\frac{[{\xi }_1,{\xi }_2]}{[{\xi }_1,{\xi }_1]}\cdot {\xi }_1=\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ 0\\ 1\end{array}\right)-\frac{-1}{1+1}\left(\begin{array}{c}-1\\ 1\\ 0\end{array}\right)=\frac{1}{2}\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ 1\\ 2\end{array}\right) \end{gathered}$$

将${\eta }_1,{\eta }_2$单位化。

$$\Rightarrow p_1=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(\begin{array}{c}-1\\ 1\\ 0\end{array}\right),p_2=\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ 1\\ 2\end{array}\right)$$

(2)${\lambda }_3=-2$时，

$$\begin{gathered} \left[\begin{array}{ccc}2& -1& 1\\ -1& 2& 1\\ 1& 1& 2\end{array}\right]\to \left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 1& 2\\ 0& 3& 3\\ 0& -3& -3\end{array}\right]\to \left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 1& 2\\ 0& 1& 1\\ 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right] \\ \to \left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 1\\ 0& 1& 1\\ 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right]\Rightarrow {\xi }_3=\left(\begin{array}{c}-1\\ -1\\ 1\end{array}\right) \end{gathered}$$

将${\xi }_3$单位化，

$$\begin{gathered} p_3=\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\left(\begin{array}{c}-1\\ -1\\ 1\end{array}\right) \\ \Rightarrow P\text{为} \\ P=(p_1,p_2,p_3)=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}-\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}& -\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}& -\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\\ 0& \frac{2}{\sqrt{6}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\end{array}\right]\text{使}{P}^{-1}AP=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& -2\end{array}\right] \end{gathered}$$

正交变换：

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}{x}_1\\ x_2\\ x_3\end{array}\right)=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}-\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}& -\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}& -\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\\ 0& \frac{2}{\sqrt{6}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\end{array}\right]\left(\begin{array}{c}{y}_1\\ y_2\\ y_3\end{array}\right)$$

使$f=y_1^2+y_2^2-2y_3^2$。

3、化二次型：

$$f=x_1^2+2x_2^2+5x_3^2+2x_1{x}_2+2x_1{x}_3+6x_2{x}_3$$

成标准形，并求所用的变换矩阵。(配方法)

解：

$$\begin{array}{rl}f& =x_1^2+2x_2^2+5x_3^2+2x_1{x}_2+2x_1{x}_3+6x_2{x}_3\\ & =x_1^2+2x_1{x}_2+2x_1{x}_3+2x_2^2+5x_3^2+6x_2{x}_3\\ & =(x_1+x_2+x_3{)}^2-x_2^2-x_3^2-2x_2{x}_3+2x_2^2+5x_3^2+6x_2{x}_3\\ & =(x_1+x_2+x_3{)}^2+x_2^2+4x_3^2+4x_2{x}_3\\ & =(x_1+x_2+x_3{)}^2+(x_2+2x_3{)}^2\end{array}$$

令$\{\begin{array}{l}{y}_1=x_1+x_2+x_3\\ y_2=x_2+2x_3\\ y_3=x_3\end{array}\Rightarrow \{\begin{array}{l}{x}_1=y_1-y_2+y_3\\ x_2=y_2-2y_3\\ x_3=y_3\end{array}\Rightarrow f=y_1^2+y_2^2$。

$$\Rightarrow P=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& -1& 1\\ 0& 1& -2\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right](|P|=1\ne 0)$$

4、化二次型：

$$f=2x_1{x}_2+2x_1{x}_3-6x_2{x}_3$$

为规范形，并求所用的变换矩阵。

解：令

$$\begin{gathered} \{\begin{array}{l}{x}_1=y_1+y_2\\ x_2=y_1-y_2\\ x_3=y_3\end{array} \\ \Rightarrow \begin{array}{rl}f& =2(y_1^2-y_2^2+2(y_1+y_2)y_3-6(y_1-y_2)y_3)\\ & =2y_1^2-2y_2^2-4y_1{y}_3+8y_2{y}_3\\ & =2(y_1^2-2y_1{y}_3)-2(y_2^2-4y_2{y}_3)\\ & =2(y_1-y_3{)}^2-2y_3^2-2(y_2-2y_3{)}^2+8y_3^2\\ & =2(y_1-y_3{)}^2-2(y_2-2y_3{)}^2+6y_3^2\end{array} \\ \Rightarrow \{\begin{array}{l}{z}_1=\sqrt{2}(y_1-y_3)\\ z_2=\sqrt{2}(y_2-2y_3)\\ z_3=\sqrt{6}{y}_3\end{array}\Rightarrow \{\begin{array}{l}{y}_1=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}{z}_1+\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}{z}_3\\ y_2=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}{z}_2+\frac{2}{\sqrt{6}}{z}_3\\ y_3=\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}{z}_3\end{array}\Rightarrow f=z_1^2-z_2^2+z_3^2 \\ \Rightarrow P=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 1& 0\\ 1& -1& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{ccc}\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& 0& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}\\ 0& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{2}{\sqrt{6}}\\ 0& 0& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}\end{array}\right]=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{3}{\sqrt{6}}\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& -\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& -\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}\\ 0& 0& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}\end{array}\right](|P|=-\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}\ne 0) \end{gathered}$$

5求一个正交变换化下列二次型为标准形：

$$f=x_1^2+x_3^2+2x_1{x}_2-2x_2{x}_3$$

解：

$$\begin{gathered} A=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 1& 0\\ 1& 0& -1\\ 0& -1& 1\end{array}\right] \\ |A-\lambda E|=\left|\begin{array}{ccc}1-\lambda & 1& 0\\ 1& -\lambda & -1\\ 0& -1& 1-\lambda \end{array}\right|=\left|\begin{array}{ccc}1-\lambda & 0& 1-\lambda \\ 1& -\lambda & -1\\ 0& -1& 1-\lambda \end{array}\right| \\ =(1-\lambda )\left|\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 1\\ 1& -\lambda & -1\\ 0& -1& 1-\lambda \end{array}\right|=(1-\lambda )\left|\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 1\\ 0& -\lambda & -2\\ 0& -1& 1-\lambda \end{array}\right| \\ =(1-\lambda )(-\lambda +{\lambda }^2-2)=(1-\lambda )(\lambda -2)(\lambda +1)=0 \\ \Rightarrow {\lambda }_1=1,{\lambda }_2=2,{\lambda }_3=-1 \end{gathered}$$

(1)${\lambda }_1=1$时，

$$\left|\begin{array}{ccc}0& 1& 0\\ 1& -1& -1\\ 0& -1& 0\end{array}\right|\to \left|\begin{array}{ccc}1& -1& -1\\ 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right|\to \left|\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& -1\\ 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right|\Rightarrow {\xi }_1=\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ 0\\ 1\end{array}\right)\Rightarrow p_1=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ 0\\ 1\end{array}\right)$$

(2)${\lambda }_2=2$时，

$$\left|\begin{array}{ccc}-1& 1& 0\\ 1& -2& -1\\ 0& -1& -1\end{array}\right|\to \left|\begin{array}{ccc}1& -1& 0\\ 0& -1& -1\\ 0& -1& -1\end{array}\right|\to \left|\begin{array}{ccc}1& -1& 0\\ 0& 1& 1\\ 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right|\to \left|\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 1\\ 0& 1& 1\\ 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right|\Rightarrow {\xi }_2=\left(\begin{array}{c}-1\\ -1\\ 1\end{array}\right)\Rightarrow p_2=\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\left(\begin{array}{c}-1\\ -1\\ 1\end{array}\right)$$

(3)${\lambda }_3=-1$时，

$$\begin{gathered} \left|\begin{array}{ccc}2& 1& 0\\ 1& 1& -1\\ 0& -1& 2\end{array}\right|\to \left|\begin{array}{ccc}1& 1& -1\\ 0& -1& 2\\ 0& -1& 2\end{array}\right|\to \left|\begin{array}{ccc}1& 1& -1\\ 0& 1& -2\\ 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right|\to \left|\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 1\\ 0& 1& -2\\ 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right|\Rightarrow {\xi }_3=\left(\begin{array}{c}-1\\ 2\\ 1\end{array}\right)\Rightarrow p_2=\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}\left(\begin{array}{c}-1\\ 2\\ 1\end{array}\right) \\ \Rightarrow P=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& -\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& -\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}\\ 0& -\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& \frac{2}{\sqrt{6}}\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}\end{array}\right]\text{使}{P}^{-1}AP=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& 2& 0\\ 0& 0& -1\end{array}\right] \\ \Rightarrow x=Py \\ \Rightarrow \left(\begin{array}{c}{x}_1\\ x_2\\ x_3\end{array}\right)=\left[\begin{array}{ccc}\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& -\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& -\frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}\\ 0& -\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& \frac{2}{\sqrt{6}}\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}\end{array}\right]\left(\begin{array}{c}{y}_1\\ y_2\\ y_3\end{array}\right) \\ \Rightarrow f=y_1^2+2y_2^2-y_3^2 \end{gathered}$$