离散数学结构第一章前半部分书摘，总结

chapter 1

1.1

sets

definition:

a set is a well-definied(it means it is possible to decide if a given object belongs to the collection or not) collection of objects called the elements or the members of the set.

example

the collection of all wooden chairs

importance

set theory is , in a sense, the fundation on which virtually all of mathematics is constructed.

properties

Certainty

Disorder

description

1.list all the element
2.specifying a property that the elements of the set have in common

notation

P(x):denote a sentence or statement P concerning the variable object x.  

description way

{x|p(x)}  

some sets usually used

• Z⁺:positive integers.1,2,3….
• N:positive integers or zaro,0,1,2,3…
• Z:integer,……-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4……..
• Q:rational number

• R:real number.

• $\emptyset$

equal

• definition:A and B are equal if they have the same elements.

subsets

definition:

if every element of A is also an element of B，that is
whenever $x \in A$ ,then $x \in B$,we say that
A is a subset of Bor that A is contained in B , and we write
$A \subset B$ ,and if A is not equal to B , then we write
$A \subsetneqq B$.

description:

venn diagram.

property:

1. $\emptyset \subset A$ ,for every set A .
2. $A = B$ $\leftrightarrow$ $A \subset B , B \subset A$

universal set

• we will assume that for each discussion there is a “universal
  set” U,containing all the objects for which the discussion
  is useful.
• any other set mentioned in the discussion will automatcally
  be assumed to be a subset of U.

finite and infinite

- if set A has n distinct elements,where n is in N,   
- n is called the cardinality. use the denote |A|  
- a set that is not finite is called infinite.  

powerset

definition:

 if A is a set , then the set of all subsets of A is called  
 the powerset of A .  

denotion

 P(A)               

1.1 pre solution

1 .

true or false
A = {1,2,4,a,b,c}
则 $\lbrace \rbrace \notin A$
solution:true

15.

let A = {1,2,5,8,11}.
then {3} $\notin$ A
solution:true

23

loading.. i have to ask it
44

1.2 operation on sets

union

definition

  if A and B are sets , we define their union as the set consisting  
  of all the elements that belong to A or B. 

denotion

A $\cap$ B

intersection

definition

 if A and B are sets , we define their intersection as the set consisting  
 of all elements that belong to both A and B   

denotion

A $\cup$ B

disjoint sets

definition

if A and B are sets , and A n B = $\emptyset$ , then we call
that they are disjoint sets.

extension

$A1 \cap A2 \cap A3....A_n$ ,denoted as $\bigcap\limits_{k =1 }^{n} A_k$

$A1 \cup A2 \cup A3....A_n$ ,denoted as $\bigcup\limits_{k =1 }^{n} A_k$

complement of B with respect to A

definition

if A and B are two sets , we define the complement of B with respect to A
as the set of all elements that belong to A and B , and we denote it by
A - B

complement

if U is a universal set containing A , then U - A is called
the complement of A

denotion

$\bar{A}$

symmetric difference

if A and B are sets , we define their symmetric difference as the set
of all elements that belong to A or to B , but not to A and B .

denotion

A $\oplus$ B

Algebraic properties of set operation

Commutative Properties

1.A $\cup$ B = B $\cup$ A
2.A $\cap$ B = B $\cap$ B

Associative Properties

1. A $\cup$ ( B $\cup$ C) = (A $\cup$ B) $\cup$ C
2. A $\cap$ ( B $\cap$ C) = (A $\cap$ B) $\cap$ C

Distributive Properties

1. A $\cap$ ( B $\cup$ c) = (A $\cap$ B) $\cup$ (A $\cap$ C)
2. A $\cap$ ( B $\cup$ c) = (A $\cap$ B) $\cup$ (A $\cap$ C)

idempotent Properties

1. $A \cup A = A$
2. $A \cap A = A$

Properties of the complement

1. $\bar{\bar{A}} = A$
2. $A \cup \bar{A} = A$
3. $A \cap \bar{A} = \emptyset$
4. $\bar{\emptyset} = U$
5. $\bar{U} = \emptyset$
6. $\overline{A \cup B} = \bar{A} \cap \bar{B}$
7. $\overline{A \cap B} = \bar{A} \cup \bar{B}$

Properties of a universal set

1. $A \cup A = U$
2. $A \cap U = A$

Properties of the empty set

1. $A \cup \emptyset = A$
2. $A \cap \emptyset = \emptyset$

the addition principle

$|A \cup B| = |A| + |B| - |A \cap B|$
$|A \cup B \cup C| = |A| + |B| + |C| - |A \cap B| - |A \cap C| - |B \cap C | + |A \cap B \cap C|$

1.3 sequence

sequence

definition

simply a list of objectsarranged in a definite order;
a first element,second element,third element.

Properties

1. can be finite, or infinite.
2. the element may be different , or some may be repeated.
3. it may happen that how a sequence is to continue is not clear.

description method

1. recursive: a_n = a_n - 1
2. explict: a_n = n * n - 1

strings

definitions

Sequences of letters or other symbols , written without the
commas,are also referred to as strings.

the set corresponding to a sequence

definition:

the set of all distinct elements in the sequence.

array

• the idea of a sequence is important in computer science
  where a sequence in sometimes called linear array or list

the distinction between a sequence and an array

1. we think of all elements of sequence S as completely
2. the point is that array S is consisdered to be a well-definied
   object, even if some of the positions have not been assigned values
   or if some values are changed during the discussion
3. the sequence of values of the array.

characteristic functions

definition

simply,think of a function on a set as a rule that assign some values
to each element of the set.if A is a subset of the universal set U
the characteristic function f_A is defined for each x $\in$ A

1.if x $\in$ A , $f_A$ = 1
2.if x $\notin$ A , $f_A$ = 0

properties

1. $f_{A \cap B} = f_A f_B$
2. $f_{A \cup B} = f_A + f_B - f_A f_B$
3. $f_{A \oplus B} = f_A + f_B - 2f_A f_B$

computer representation of sets and subsets

description

to represent a set in a computer , the elements of the set must be
arranged in a sequence , when a universal set U = {$x_1,x_2..x_n$}
and A is a subset,use the characteristic function to translate
the subset into a sequence of 0 and 1 of length n
- example
U = {1,2,3,4,5} subset A = {1,2,3}
then the sequence is 1,1,1,0,0

countable

1. a set is called countable of it is the set corresponding
   to some sequence .informally ,this means that the set can be arranged
   in a list , with the first , second , annd so on , then the set can
   therefore be called “counted”
2. all finite sets sre called countable.
3. not all infinite sets are countable, they are called uncountable
4. prove [0,1] is not countable
   $d_1 = 0.a_1a_2a_3...$
   $d_2 = 0.b_1a_2b_3...$
   $d_3 = 0.c_1a_2c_3...$
   …
   then assume an x $0.x_1x_2...$
   $if a_1 == 1 x_1 = 2 \quad else \quad x_1 = 1$
   $if b_2 == 1 x_2 = 2 \quad else \quad x_2 = 1$
   $if c_3 == 1 x_3 = 2 \quad else \quad x_3 = 1$
   …
   then we know x is not in the list.

strings and regular expressions

definition

given a set A , we can construct the set A* consisting of all
finite sequences of elements of A often , the set A is not a set of
numbers but some set of symbols.in this case , A is called an alphabet,
and the finite sequences in A* are called wordsfrom A. we assume that A* contains
empty sequence or empty string ,containing no symbols, and we denote this string
by $\Lambda$.

catenation

definition:

if w₁ = $s_1s_2s_3...s_n$ and w_2 = $t_1t_2t_3...t_k$ are elements
of A* for some set A , we define the catenation of $w_1$ and $w_2$ as the sequence
$s_1s_2...s_nt_1t_2..t_k$

denotion

$w_1 \cdot w_2$

propertie

1. $w \cdot \Lambda = w$
2. $\Lambda \cdot w = w$

A regular expression over A(正则表达式)

definition

a string constructed from the elements of A and the symbols(,),$\bigvee$
*,$\Lambda$,according to the following definition.
RE1. the symbol $\Lambda$ is a regular expression
RE2. if x $\in$ A , the symbol x is a regular expression
RE3. if $\alpha$ and $\beta$ are regular expressios , then $\alpha \beta$ is regular
RE4. if $\alpha$ and $\beta$ are regular expressios , then $\alpha \space \bigvee \beta$ is regular.
Re5. if $\alpha$ is a regular expression , then the expression ($\alpha$) ^* is regular
- RE1 and RE2 provides initial regular expressions , the other part of the definition
are used repetitively to define successively large sets of regular expressions those already
defined , thus the definition is recursively.
- associated with each regular expression over A , there is a corresponding subset of A*
,such sets are called regular subsets of A ^* or just regular sets if no reference to A is needed.
1. the expression $\Lambda$ corresponding to the set {$\Lambda$}, where
$\Lambda$ is the empty string in $A^*$.
2. if x $\in$ A , then the regular expression x corresponding to set {x}
3. if $\alpha$ and $\beta$ are regular expressions corresponding to the subset M and N
of $A^*$ then $\alpha\beta$ corresponding to the M$\cdot$N = {s$\cdot$t|s $\in$ M and t $\in$ N}, thus M$\cdot$N is the set of all catenations
of strings in M with string in N.
4. if $\alpha$ and $\beta$ are regular expressions corresponding to the subset M and N , then $\alpha \bigvee \beta$ corresponding to $M \cup N$
5. if regular expression $\alpha$ corresponding to the subset M of $A^*$ , then
$(\alpha)^*$ corresponding to the set $M^*$