**目标:**逐步了解神经网络的思维方式,同时磨练你对深度学习的直觉。
说明:
除非指令中明确要求使用,否则请勿在代码中使用循环(for / while)。
学习内容:
建立学习算法的一般架构,包括:
初始化参数
计算损失函数及其梯度
使用优化算法(梯度下降)
按正确的顺序将以上所有三个功能集成到一个主模型上。
安装包
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import h5py
import scipy
from PIL import Image
from scipy import ndimage
from lr_utils import load_dataset
%matplotlib inline
问题概述
问题说明:你将获得一个包含以下内容的数据集(“data.h5”):
标记为cat(y = 1)或非cat(y = 0)的m_train训练图像集
标记为cat或non-cat的m_test测试图像集
图像维度为(num_px,num_px,3),其中3表示3个通道(RGB)。 因此,每个图像都是正方形(高度= num_px)和(宽度= num_px)。
你将构建一个简单的图像识别算法,该算法可以将图片正确分类为猫和非猫。
让我们熟悉一下数据集吧, 首先通过运行以下代码来加载数据。
# 下载数据
train_set_x_orig, train_set_y, test_set_x_orig, test_set_y, classes = load_dataset()
我们在图像数据集(训练和测试)的末尾添加了"_orig",以便对其进行预处理。 预处理后,我们将得到train_set_x和test_set_x(标签train_set_y和test_set_y不需要任何预处理)。
train_set_x_orig和test_set_x_orig的每一行都是代表图像的数组。 你可以通过运行以下代码来可视化示例。 还可以随意更改index值并重新运行以查看其他图像。
# 展示一个图片
index = 5
plt.imshow(train_set_x_orig[index])
print('y = '+str(train_set_y[:,index]) + ", it's a '" + classes[np.squeeze(train_set_y[:,index])].decode("utf-8") + "'puicture.")
y = [0], it's a 'non-cat'puicture.
深度学习中的许多报错都来自于矩阵/向量尺寸不匹配。 如果你可以保持矩阵/向量的尺寸不变,那么将消除大多错误。
练习: 查找以下各项的值:
m_train(训练集示例数量)
m_test(测试集示例数量)
num_px(=训练图像的高度=训练图像的宽度)
请记住,“ train_set_x_orig”是一个维度为(m_train,num_px,num_px,3)的numpy数组。 例如,你可以通过编写“ train_set_x_orig.shape [0]”来访问“ m_train”。
# 代码开动
m_train = train_set_x_orig.shape[0]
m_test = test_set_x_orig.shape[0]
num_px = train_set_x_orig.shape[1]
# 代码结束 下面也可以看成数据探索
print ("Number of training examples: m_train = " + str(m_train))
print ("Number of testing examples: m_test = " + str(m_test))
print ("Height/Width of each image: num_px = " + str(num_px))
print ("Each image is of size: (" + str(num_px) + ", " + str(num_px) + ", 3)")
print ("train_set_x shape: " + str(train_set_x_orig.shape))
print ("train_set_y shape: " + str(train_set_y.shape))
print ("test_set_x shape: " + str(test_set_x_orig.shape))
print ("test_set_y shape: " + str(test_set_y.shape))
Number of training examples: m_train = 209
Number of testing examples: m_test = 50
Height/Width of each image: num_px = 64
Each image is of size: (64, 64, 3)
train_set_x shape: (209, 64, 64, 3)
train_set_y shape: (1, 209)
test_set_x shape: (50, 64, 64, 3)
test_set_y shape: (1, 50)
为了方便起见,你现在应该以维度(num_px num_px 3, 1)的numpy数组重塑维度(num_px,num_px,3)的图像。 此后,我们的训练(和测试)数据集是一个numpy数组,其中每列代表一个展平的图像。 应该有m_train(和m_test)列。
练习: 重塑训练和测试数据集,以便将大小(num_px,num_px,3)的图像展平为单个形状的向量(num_px num_px
3, 1)。
当你想将维度为(a,b,c,d)的矩阵X展平为形状为(b
cd, a)的矩阵X_flatten时的一个技巧是:
# Reshape the training and test examples
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 2 lines of code)
train_set_x_flatten = train_set_x_orig.reshape(train_set_x_orig.shape[0], -1).T
test_set_x_flatten = test_set_x_orig.reshape(test_set_x_orig.shape[0], -1).T
### END CODE HERE ###
print("train_set_x_flatten shape: " + str(train_set_x_flatten.shape))
print("train_set_y_shape:" + str(train_set_y.shape))
print("test_set_x_flatten shape: " + str(test_set_x_flatten.shape))
print("test_set_y shape: " + str(test_set_y.shape))
print("sanity check after reshaping: " + str(train_set_x_flatten[0:5,0]))
train_set_x_flatten shape: (12288, 209)
train_set_y_shape:(1, 209)
test_set_x_flatten shape: (12288, 50)
test_set_y shape: (1, 50)
sanity check after reshaping: [17 31 56 22 33]
为了表示彩色图像,必须为每个像素指定红、绿、蓝色通道(RGB),因此像素值实际上是一个从0到255的三个数字的向量。
机器学习中一个常见的预处理步骤是对数据集进行居中和标准化,这意味着你要从每个示例中减去整个numpy数组的均值,然后除以整个numpy数组的标准差。但是图片数据集则更为简单方便,并且只要将数据集的每一行除以255(像素通道的最大值),效果也差不多。
在训练模型期间,你将要乘以权重并向一些初始输入添加偏差以观察神经元的激活。然后,使用反向梯度传播以训练模型。但是,让特征具有相似的范围以至渐变不会爆炸是非常重要的。具体内容我们将在后面的教程中详细学习!
开始标准化我们的数据集吧!
train_set_x = train_set_x_flatten/255
test_set_x = test_set_x_flatten/255
你需要记住的内容:
预处理数据集的常见步骤是:
找出数据的尺寸和维度(m_train,m_test,num_px等)
重塑数据集,以使每个示例都是大小为(num_px \ num_px \ 3,1)的向量
“标准化”数据
学习算法的一般架构
现在是时候设计一种简单的算法来区分猫图像和非猫图像了
你将使用神经网络思维方式简历Logistics回归.下图说明了为什么逻辑回归实际上是一个非常简单的神经网络!
算法的数学表达式:
关键步骤
在本练习中,你将执行以下步骤:
- 初始化模型参数
- 通过最小损失来学习模型的参数
- 使用学习到的参数进行预测(在测试集上)
- 分析结果并得出结论
构建算法的各个部分
建立神经网络的主要步骤是:
1.定义模型的结构(例如输入特征的数量)
2.初始化模型的参数
3.循环:
- 计算当前损失(正向传播)
- 计算当前梯度 (向后传播)
- 更新参数(梯度下降)
你通常会分别构建1-3,然后将它们集成到一个称为“ model()”的函数中。
辅助函数
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def sigmoid(z):
s = 1/(1+np.exp(-z))
return s
print("sigmoid([0,2]) = " + str(sigmoid(np.array([0,2]))))
sigmoid([0,2]) = [0.5 0.88079708]
初始化参数
练习: 在下面的单元格中实现参数初始化,你必须将w初始化为零的向量, 如果你不知道要使用什么numpy函数,请在Numpy库的文档中查找np.zeros()。
# GRADED FUNCTION: initialize_with_zeros
def initialize_with_zeros(dim):
"""
This function creates a vector of zeros of shape (dim, 1) for w and initializes b to 0.
Argument:
dim -- size of the w vector we want (or number of parameters in this case)
Returns:
w -- initialized vector of shape (dim, 1)
b -- initialized scalar (corresponds to the bias)
"""
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 1 line of code)
w = np.zeros((dim,1))
b = 0
### END CODE HERE ###
assert(w.shape == (dim,1))
assert(isinstance(b,float) or isinstance(b,int))
return w,b
dim = 2
w,b = initialize_with_zeros(dim)
print("w = " + str(w))
print("b = " + str(b))
w = [[0.]
[0.]]
b = 0
前向和后向传播
现在参数已经初始化,可以执行"向前"和"向后"传播步骤来学习参数
练习: 实现函数propagate() 来计算损失函数及其梯度
提示:
正向传播:
# GRADED FUNCTION: propagate
def propagate(w, b, X, Y):
"""
Implement the cost function and its gradient for the propagation explained above
Arguments:
w -- weights, a numpy array of size (num_px * num_px * 3, 1)
b -- bias, a scalar
X -- data of size (num_px * num_px * 3, number of examples)
Y -- true "label" vector (containing 0 if non-cat, 1 if cat) of size (1, number of examples)
Return:
cost -- negative log-likelihood cost for logistic regression
dw -- gradient of the loss with respect to w, thus same shape as w
db -- gradient of the loss with respect to b, thus same shape as b
Tips:
- Write your code step by step for the propagation. np.log(), np.dot()
"""
m = X.shape[1]
# FORWARD PROPAGATTION (FROM X TO COST)
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 2 lines of code)
A = sigmoid(np.dot(w.T,X) + b) # compute activation 计算激活
cost = -1 / m * np.sum(Y * np.log(A) + (1 - Y) * np.log(1 - A))
### END CODE HERE ###
# BACKWARD PROPAGATION (TO FIND GRAD)
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 2 lines of code)
dw = 1/m * np.dot(X,(A - Y).T)
db = 1/m * np.sum(A - Y)
### END CODE HERE ###
assert(dw.shape == w.shape)
assert(db.dtype == float)
cost = np.squeeze(cost)
assert(cost.shape == ())
grads = {"dw": dw,
"db": db}
return grads,cost
w,b,X,Y = np.array([[1],[2]]),2,np.array([[1,2],[3,4]]),np.array([[1,0]])
grads,cost = propagate(w,b,X,Y)
print("dw = " + str(grads['dw']))
print("db = " + str(grads['db']))
print("cost = " + str(cost))
dw = [[0.99993216]
[1.99980262]]
db = 0.49993523062470574
cost = 6.000064773192205
优化函数
- 初始化参数
- 计算损失函数及其梯度
- 使用梯度下降来更新参数
# GRADED FUNCTION: optimize
def optimize(w, b, X, Y, num_iterations, learning_rate, print_cost = False):
"""
This function optimizes w and b by running a gradient descent algorithm
Arguments:
w -- weights, a numpy array of size (num_px * num_px * 3, 1)
b -- bias, a scalar
X -- data of shape (num_px * num_px * 3, number of examples)
Y -- true "label" vector (containing 0 if non-cat, 1 if cat), of shape (1, number of examples)
num_iterations -- number of iterations of the optimization loop
learning_rate -- learning rate of the gradient descent update rule
print_cost -- True to print the loss every 100 steps
Returns:
params -- dictionary containing the weights w and bias b
grads -- dictionary containing the gradients of the weights and bias with respect to the cost function
costs -- list of all the costs computed during the optimization, this will be used to plot the learning curve.
Tips:
You basically need to write down two steps and iterate through them:
1) Calculate the cost and the gradient for the current parameters. Use propagate().
2) Update the parameters using gradient descent rule for w and b.
"""
costs = []
for i in range(num_iterations):
# Cost and gradient calculation (≈ 1-4 lines of code)
### START CODE HERE ###
grads, cost = propagate(w, b, X, Y)
### END CODE HERE ###
# Retrieve derivatives from grads
dw = grads["dw"]
db = grads["db"]
# update rule (≈ 2 lines of code)
### START CODE HERE ###
w = w - learning_rate * dw
b = b - learning_rate * db
### END CODE HERE ###
# Record the costs
if i % 100 == 0:
costs.append(cost)
# Print the cost every 100 training examples
if print_cost and i % 100 == 0:
print ("Cost after iteration %i: %f" %(i, cost))
params = {"w": w,
"b": b}
grads = {"dw": dw,
"db": db}
return params, grads, costs
params,grads,costs = optimize(w,b,X,Y,num_iterations=100,learning_rate = 0.009,print_cost= False)
print ("w = " + str(params["w"]))
print ("b = " + str(params["b"]))
print ("dw = " + str(grads["dw"]))
print ("db = " + str(grads["db"]))
print(costs)
w = [[0.1124579 ]
[0.23106775]]
b = 1.5593049248448891
dw = [[0.90158428]
[1.76250842]]
db = 0.4304620716786828
[6.000064773192205]
def predict(w,b,X):
'''
Predict whether the label is 0 or 1 using learned logistic regression parameters (w, b)
Arguments:
w -- weights, a numpy array of size (num_px * num_px * 3, 1)
b -- bias, a scalar
X -- data of size (num_px * num_px * 3, number of examples)
Returns:
Y_prediction -- a numpy array (vector) containing all predictions (0/1) for the examples in X
'''
m = X.shape[1]
Y_prediction = np.zeros((1,m))
w = w.reshape(X.shape[0],1)
# Compute vector "A" predicting the probabilities of a cat being present in the picture
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 1 line of code)
A = sigmoid(np.dot(w.T,X) + b)
# END CODE HERE
for i in range(A.shape[1]):
# Convert probabilities A[0,i] to actual predictions p[0,i]
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 4 lines of code)
if A[0,i] <= 0.5:
Y_prediction[0,i] = 0
else:
Y_prediction[0,i] = 1
### END CODE HERE
assert(Y_prediction.shape == (1,m))
return Y_prediction
print ("predictions = " + str(predict(w, b, X)))
predictions = [[1. 1.]]
你需要记住以下几点:
你已经实现了以下几个函数:
初始化(w,b)
迭代优化损失以学习参数(w,b):
计算损失及其梯度
使用梯度下降更新参数
使用学到的(w,b)来预测给定示例集的标签
将所有功能合并到模型中
现在,将所有构件(在上一部分中实现的功能)以正确的顺序放在一起,从而得到整体的模型结构。
练习: 实现模型功能,使用以下符号:
Y_prediction对测试集的预测
Y_prediction_train对训练集的预测
w,损失,optimize()输出的梯度
d = model(train_set_x, train_set_y, test_set_x, test_set_y, num_iterations = 5000, learning_rate = 0.005, print_cost = True)
Cost after iteration 0: 0.693147
Cost after iteration 100: 0.584508
Cost after iteration 200: 0.466949
Cost after iteration 300: 0.376007
Cost after iteration 400: 0.331463
Cost after iteration 500: 0.303273
Cost after iteration 600: 0.279880
Cost after iteration 700: 0.260042
Cost after iteration 800: 0.242941
Cost after iteration 900: 0.228004
Cost after iteration 1000: 0.214820
Cost after iteration 1100: 0.203078
Cost after iteration 1200: 0.192544
Cost after iteration 1300: 0.183033
Cost after iteration 1400: 0.174399
Cost after iteration 1500: 0.166521
Cost after iteration 1600: 0.159305
Cost after iteration 1700: 0.152667
Cost after iteration 1800: 0.146542
Cost after iteration 1900: 0.140872
Cost after iteration 2000: 0.135608
Cost after iteration 2100: 0.130708
Cost after iteration 2200: 0.126137
Cost after iteration 2300: 0.121861
Cost after iteration 2400: 0.117855
Cost after iteration 2500: 0.114093
Cost after iteration 2600: 0.110554
Cost after iteration 2700: 0.107219
Cost after iteration 2800: 0.104072
Cost after iteration 2900: 0.101097
Cost after iteration 3000: 0.098280
Cost after iteration 3100: 0.095610
Cost after iteration 3200: 0.093075
Cost after iteration 3300: 0.090667
Cost after iteration 3400: 0.088374
Cost after iteration 3500: 0.086190
Cost after iteration 3600: 0.084108
Cost after iteration 3700: 0.082119
Cost after iteration 3800: 0.080219
Cost after iteration 3900: 0.078402
Cost after iteration 4000: 0.076662
Cost after iteration 4100: 0.074994
Cost after iteration 4200: 0.073395
Cost after iteration 4300: 0.071860
Cost after iteration 4400: 0.070385
Cost after iteration 4500: 0.068968
Cost after iteration 4600: 0.067604
Cost after iteration 4700: 0.066291
Cost after iteration 4800: 0.065027
Cost after iteration 4900: 0.063807
train accuracy: 100.0 %
test accuracy: 70.0 %
test_set_x.shape
(12288, 50)
# Example of a picture that was wrongly classified
index = 2
plt.imshow(test_set_x[:,index].reshape((num_px,num_px,3)))
print("y = " + str(test_set_y[0,index]) + ", you predicted that it is a \"" + classes[int(d["Y_prediction_test"][0,index])].decode("utf-8") + "\"picture.")
y = 1, you predicted that it is a "cat"picture.
让我们绘制损失函数和梯度吧
costs = np.squeeze(d['costs'])
len(costs)
20
# Plot learning curve (with costs)
costs = np.squeeze(d['costs'])
plt.plot(costs)
plt.ylabel('cost')
plt.xlabel('iterations (per hundreds)')
plt.title("Learning rate =" + str(d["learning_rate"]))
plt.show()
解释:
损失下降表明正在学习参数。 但是,你看到可以在训练集上训练更多模型。 尝试增加上面单元格中的迭代次数,然后重新运行这些单元格。 你可能会看到训练集准确性提高了,但是测试集准确性却降低了。 这称为过度拟合。
进一步分析(可选练习)
建立了第一个图像分类模型。 让我们对其进行进一步分析,并研究如何选择学习率。[外链图片转存失败,源站可能有防盗链机制,建议将图片保存下来直接上传(img-D6sLfP27-1623661224343)(attachment:image.png)]
学习率的选择
提醒:
为了使梯度下降起作用,你必须明智地选择学习率。 学习率
决定我们更新参数的速度。 如果学习率太大,我们可能会“超出”最佳值。 同样,如果太小,将需要更多的迭代才能收敛到最佳值。 这也是为什么调整好学习率至关重要。
让我们将模型的学习曲线与选择的几种学习率进行比较。 运行下面的单元格。 这大约需要1分钟。 还可以尝试与我们初始化要包含的“ learning_rates”变量的三个值不同的值,然后看看会发生什么。
learning_rates = [0.01,0.001,0.0001]
models = {}
for i in learning_rates:
print("learning rate is:" ,i)
models[str(i)] = model(train_set_x,train_set_y,test_set_x,test_set_y,num_iterations=1500,learning_rate = i,print_cost=False)
print("\n" + "-------------------------------------------------------" + '\n')
for i in learning_rates:
plt.plot(np.squeeze(models[str(i)]["costs"]),label= str(models[str(i)]["learning_rate"]))
plt.ylabel('cost')
plt.xlabel('iterations')
legend = plt.legend(loc='upper center',shadow = True)
frame = legend.get_frame()
frame.set_facecolor('0.90')
plt.show()
learning rate is: 0.01
train accuracy: 99.52153110047847 %
test accuracy: 68.0 %
-------------------------------------------------------
learning rate is: 0.001
train accuracy: 88.99521531100478 %
test accuracy: 64.0 %
-------------------------------------------------------
learning rate is: 0.0001
train accuracy: 68.42105263157895 %
test accuracy: 36.0 %
-------------------------------------------------------
解释:
不同的学习率会带来不同的损失,因此会有不同的预测结果。
如果学习率太大(0.01),则成本可能会上下波动。 它甚至可能会发散(尽管在此示例中,使用0.01最终仍会以较高的损失值获得收益)。
较低的损失并不意味着模型效果很好。当训练精度比测试精度高很多时,就会发生过拟合情况。
在深度学习中,我们通常建议你:
选择好能最小化损失函数的学习率。
如果模型过度拟合,请使用其他方法来减少过度拟合。 (我们将在后面的教程中讨论。)
使用自己的图像进行测试
可以使用自己的图像并查看模型的预测输出。 要做到这一点:
1.单击此笔记本上部栏中的 “File”,然后单击"Open" 以在Coursera Hub上运行。
2.将图像添加到Jupyter Notebook的目录中,在"images"文件夹中
3.在以下代码中更改图像的名称
4.运行代码,检查算法是否正确(1 = cat,0 = non-cat)!
fname = './images/cat_in_iran.jpg'
image = np.array(plt.imread(fname))
from PIL import Image
my_image = np.array(Image.fromarray(image).resize((num_px,num_px))).reshape((1, num_px*num_px*3)).T
my_predicted_image = predict(d["w"], d["b"], my_image)
plt.imshow(image)
print("y = " + str(np.squeeze(my_predicted_image)) + ", your algorithm predicts a \"" + classes[int(np.squeeze(my_predicted_image)),].decode("utf-8") + "\" picture.")
y = 1.0, your algorithm predicts a "cat" picture.
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总结
1.预处理数据集很重要
2.如何实现每个函数: initialize(),propagation(),optimize(),并用此构建一个model()
3.调整学习速率(这是"超参数"的一个示例) 可以对算法产生很大的影响。 你将在本课程的稍后部分看到更多示例!
参考资料
http://www.wildml.com/2015/09/implementing-a-neural-network-from-scratch/
https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/211436/why-do-we-normalize-images-by-subtracting-the-datasets-image-mean-and-not-the-c
https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/95510114