线性代数 04.05 向量空间

$\color{blue}{\S 第四章 第五节 向量空间}$

$\color{blue}{一、向量空间的概念}$

$定义7.设V为n维的向量空间集合,如果集合V非空,且满足\\ (1) 若\forall \alpha \in V, \beta \in V,则 \alpha + \beta \in V; \\ (2) 若 \forall \alpha \in V, \lambda \in R,则\lambda \alpha \in V. \\ 那么就称{\color{green}{集合V}}为{\color{blue}{向量空间}}.$
$注：定义中的(1)、(2)两条称为对加法及数乘两种运算{\color{blue}{封闭}}.$

$例1.\\ (1)3维向量的全体R^3是一个向量空间. \\ (2) n维向量的全体R^n也是一个向量空间.$

$例2.验证集合\\ V_0 = \lbrace x = (0, x_2, \cdots, x_n)^T | x_2, \cdots, x_n \in R \rbrace \\ 是否是一个向量空间.$
$解:\\ \because \forall \alpha \in V_0, \beta \in V_0, \lambda \in R,有\\ \alpha + \beta = (0, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_n)^T + (0, b_2, \cdots, b_n)^T \\ = (0, \alpha_2 + b_2, \cdots, \alpha_n + b_n)^T \in V_0 \\ \lambda \alpha = (0, \lambda \alpha_2, \cdots, \lambda \alpha_n)^T \in V_0 \\ \therefore V_0是一个向量空间.$

$例3.验证集合\\ V_1 = \lbrace x = (1, x_2, \cdots, x_n)^T | x_2, \cdots, x_n \in R \rbrace \\ 是否是一个向量空间.$
$解:\\ \because \forall \alpha \in V_1, \beta \in V_1, \lambda \neq 1, 有\\ \alpha + \beta = (1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_n)^T + (1, b_2, \cdots, b_n)^T \\ = (2, \alpha_2 + b_2, \cdots, \alpha_n + b_n)^T \not \in V_1 \\ \lambda \alpha = (\lambda, \lambda \alpha_2, \cdots, \lambda \alpha_n)^T \not \in V_1 \\ \therefore V_1不是一个向量空间.$

$例4.设\alpha和\beta为两个已知的n维向量,验证集合 \\ V = \lbrace x = \lambda \alpha + \mu \beta | \lambda, \mu \in R \rbrace \\ 是一个向量空间.$
$解: \\ 取x_1 = \lambda_1 \alpha + \mu_1 \beta \in V, x_2 = \lambda_2 \alpha + \mu_2 \beta \in V, k \in R.则有\\ x_1 + x_2 = (\lambda_1 + \lambda_2) \alpha + (\mu_1 + \mu_2)\beta \in V, \\ kx_1 = (k\lambda_1) \alpha + (k\mu_1)\beta \in V. \\ \therefore V是一个向量空间. \\ 注:我们称如上构成的向量空间为由\alpha、\beta所生成的向量空间.$
$一般地,由向量组\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_m所生成的向量空间为: \\ V = \lbrace x = \lambda_1 \alpha_1 + \lambda_2 \alpha_2 + \cdots + \lambda_m \alpha_m | \lambda_1, \lambda_2, \cdots, \lambda_m \in R \rbrace.$

$例5.设向量组\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_m与向量组b_1, b_2, \cdots, b_s等价,记:\\ V_1 = \lbrace x = \lambda_1 \alpha_1 + \lambda_2 \alpha_2 + \cdots + \lambda_m \alpha_m | \lambda_1, \lambda_2, \cdots, \lambda_m \in R \rbrace, \\ V_2 = \lbrace x = \mu_1 b_1 + \mu_2 b_2 + \cdots + \mu_s b_s | \mu_1, \mu_2, \cdots, \mu_s \in R \rbrace, \\ 试证:V_1 = V_2.$
$证:\\ \forall x \in V_1,则x可由\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_m线性表示.\\ 因\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_m可由b_1, b_2, \cdots, b_s线性表示,\\ 故x可由b_1, b_2, \cdots, b_s线性表示,所以x \in V_2.\\ 即\forall x \in V_1, 则x \in V_2,因此V_1 \subset V_2. \\ 同理可证\forall x \in V_2, 则x \in V_1,因此V_2 \subset V_1. \\ \because V_1 \subset V_2, V_2 \subset V_1; \\ \therefore V_1 = V_2.$

$定义8.设有向量空间V_1及V_2,若V_1 \subset V_2,就称V_1是V_2的子空间.$
$(1) 任何由n维向量所组成的向量空间V,总有V \subset R^n,\\ 所以这样的向量空间总是R^n的子空间.\\ (2)例2中的V_0也是R^n的子空间.\\ (3)例4中的由n维向量\alpha和\beta所生成向量空间也是R^n的子空间.$

$\color{blue}{二、向量空间的基与维数}$

$定义9.设V为向量空间,如果r个向量\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_r \in V,且满足 \\ (1) \alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_r 线性无关; \\ (2) V中任一向量都可由\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_r线性表示; \\ 那么，向量组 \alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_r 就称为向量空间V的一个基,\\ r称为向量空间V的维数,并称V为r维的向量空间.$
$1. 如果向量空间V没有基,那么V的维数为0.$
$2. 0维的向量空间只有一个零向量.$
$3. 若把向量空间V看作向量组,则V的基就是向量的极大无关组,\\ V的维数就是向量组的秩.$
$4. V_0 = \lbrace x = (0, x_2, \cdots, x_n)^T | x_2, \cdots, x_n \in R \rbrace 的一个基为: \\ e_2 = \begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 1 \\ \vdots \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}, \cdots, e_n = \begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 0 \\ \vdots \\ 1 \end{pmatrix} \\ 所以V_0是一个n-1维的向量空间.$
$5. 由向量组 \alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_m 所生成的向量空间, \\ V = \lbrace x = \lambda_1 \alpha_1 + \lambda_2 \alpha_2 + \cdots + \lambda_m \alpha_m | \lambda_1, \lambda_2, \cdots, \lambda_m \in R \rbrace . \\ 显然, 向量空间V与向量组 \alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_m 等价, \\ 所以向量组 \alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_m 的极大无关组就是V的一个基, \\ \alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_m的秩就是V的维数.$
$6.若向量空间V \subset R^n,则V的维数不会超过n.\\ 并且,当V的维数为n时,V = R^n.$
$7. 若向量组 \alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_r 是向量空间V的一个基,\\ 则V可表示为\\ V = \lbrace x = \lambda_1 \alpha_1 + \lambda_2 \alpha_2 + \cdots + \lambda_r \ \alpha_r | \lambda_1, \lambda_2, \cdots, \lambda_r \in R \rbrace. \\ 这清楚地给出一个向量空间V的构造方法.$

$例6.设\\ A = \begin{pmatrix} \alpha_1, \alpha_2, \alpha_3 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix}2 & 2 & -1 \\ 2 & -1 & 2 \\ -1 & 2 & 2 \\ \end{pmatrix}, \\ B = \begin{pmatrix} b_1, b_2 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 4 \\ 0 & 3 \\ -4 & 2 \\ \end{pmatrix}, \\ 验证\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \alpha_3是R^3的一个基,并把b_1, b_2用这个基线性表示.$
$解: 要证\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \alpha_3是R^3的一个基，\\ 只需证\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \alpha_3线性无关，即证A \sim E即可. \\ 设b_1 = x_{11}\alpha_1 + x_{21}\alpha_2 + x_{31}\alpha_3 \\ b_2 = x_{12} \alpha_1 + x_{22} \alpha_2 + x_{32} \alpha_3 \\ 即 \begin{pmatrix} b_1, b_2 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} \alpha_1, \alpha_2, \alpha_3 \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix} x_{11} & x_{12} \\ x_{21} & x_{22} \\ x_{31} & x_{32} \\ \end{pmatrix}, \\ 记作：B = AX. \\ 对矩阵(A | B)施以初等行变换,若A能变成E,\\ 则\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \alpha_3为R^3的一个基,且当A变成E时,\\ B变成X = A^{-1}B. \\ (A|B) = \begin{pmatrix} 2 & 2 & -1 & 1 & 4 \\ 2 & -1 & 2 & 0 & 3\\ -1 & 2 & 2 & -4 & 2\\ \end{pmatrix} \\ \sim \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 4 & 1 & -3 & 6 \\ 1 & 1 & 4 & -4 & 5 \\ -1 & 2 & 2 & -4 & 2\\ \end{pmatrix} \sim \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 4 & 1 & -3 & 6 \\ 0 & -3 & 3 & -1 & -1 \\ 0 & 6 & 3 & -7 & 8 \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ \sim \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 1 & 4 & -4 & 5 \\ 0 & -3 & 3 & -1 & -1 \\ 0 & 0 & 9 & -9 & 6 \\ \end{pmatrix} \sim \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 1 & 4 & -4 & 5 \\ 0 & -3 & 3 & -1 & -1 \\ 0 & 0 & 3 & -3 & 2 \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ \sim \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 1 & 1 & -1 & 3 \\ 0 & -3 & 0 & 2 & -3 \\ 0 & 0 & 3 & -3 & 2 \\ \end{pmatrix} \sim \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 1 & 1 & -1 & 3 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & -\frac{2}{3} & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & -1 & \frac{2}{3} \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ \sim \begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & \frac{2}{3} & \frac{4}{3} \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & -\frac{2}{3} & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & -1 & \frac{2}{3} \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ A \sim E, 故\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \alpha_3是R^3的一个基,且 \\ \begin{pmatrix} b_1, b_2 \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} \alpha_1, \alpha_2, \alpha_3 \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix} \dfrac{2}{3} & \dfrac{4}{3} \\ -\dfrac{2}{3} & 1 \\ -1 & \dfrac{2}{3} \\ \end{pmatrix}$

$\color{blue}{三、过度矩阵与坐标变换}$

1.过度矩阵
$设n维向量空间V的两组基为\\ A:\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_n \\ B:\beta_1, \beta_2, \cdots, \beta_n \\ 由于A组基与B组基等价,所以$
$\left \{ \begin{array}{l} \beta_1 = c_{11}\alpha_1 + c_{21}\alpha_2 + \cdots + c_{n1}\alpha_n \\ \beta_2 = c_{12}\alpha_1 + c_{22}\alpha_2 + \cdots + c_{n2}\alpha_n \\ \cdots \quad \cdots \quad \cdots \quad \cdots \quad \cdots \quad \cdots \\ \beta_n = c_{1n}\alpha_1 + c_{2n}\alpha_2 + \cdots + c_{nn}\alpha_n \\ \end{array} \right.$
$即\begin{pmatrix} \beta_1, \beta_2, \cdots, \beta_n \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} \alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_n \end{pmatrix}C\\ 称矩阵C为由基\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_n到\beta_1, \beta_2, \cdots, \beta_n的过渡矩阵.\\ 其中\\ C = \begin{pmatrix} c_{11} & c_{12} & \cdots & c_{1n} \\ c_{21} & c_{22} & \cdots & c_{2n} \\ \cdots & \cdots & \cdots & \cdots \\ c_{n1} & c_{n2} & \cdots & c_{nn} \\ \end{pmatrix}$

2.基坐标
$设向量v在两个基\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_n和\beta_1, \beta_2, \cdots, \beta_n下坐标\\ 分别为x_1, x_2, \cdots, x_n和y_1, y_2, \cdots, y_n,则\forall v \in V有\\ v = x_1 \alpha_1 + x_2 \alpha_2 + \cdots + x_n \alpha_n \\ = y_1 \beta_1 + y_2 \beta_2 + \cdots + y_n \beta_n \\ 即\\ v = \begin{pmatrix}\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_n \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix}x_1 \\ x_2 \\ \vdots \\ x_n \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix}\beta_1, \beta_2, \cdots, \beta_n \end{pmatrix}\begin{pmatrix}y_1 \\ y_2 \\ \vdots \\ y_n \end{pmatrix}, \\ 将\begin{pmatrix}\beta_1, \beta_2, \cdots, \beta_n \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix}\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_n \end{pmatrix}C代入上式,得\\ v = \begin{pmatrix}\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \cdots, \alpha_n \end{pmatrix} C \begin{pmatrix}y_1 \\ y_2 \\ \vdots \\ y_n \end{pmatrix}, \\ 两端都乘以A^{-1},得\\ \begin{pmatrix}x_1 \\ x_2 \\ \vdots \\ x_n \end{pmatrix} = C \begin{pmatrix}y_1 \\ y_2 \\ \vdots \\ y_n \end{pmatrix}, \\ 或\\ \begin{pmatrix}y_1 \\ y_2 \\ \vdots \\ y_n \end{pmatrix} = C^{-1}\begin{pmatrix}x_1 \\ x_2 \\ \vdots \\ x_n \end{pmatrix}.$

$例7.已知R^3的两组基分别为\\ A:\alpha_1 = \begin{pmatrix} a \\ 1 \\ 1 \end{pmatrix}, \alpha_2 = \begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ b \\ 1 \end{pmatrix}, \alpha_3 = \begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 0 \\ c \end{pmatrix}, \\ B:\beta_1 = \begin{pmatrix} -1 \\ -1 \\ x \end{pmatrix}, \beta_2 = \begin{pmatrix} y \\ -1 \\ 1 \end{pmatrix}, \beta_3 = \begin{pmatrix} -1 \\ z \\ 1 \end{pmatrix}, \\ 且由基\alpha_1, \alpha_2, \alpha_3到\beta_1, \beta_2, \beta_3的过渡矩阵为\\ C = \begin{pmatrix} -1 & 1 & -1 \\ 0 & 1 & 2 \\ 0 & 2 & 0 \\ \end{pmatrix},\\ 求a、b、c及x、y、z$
$解:由基坐标变换公式:\\ \begin{pmatrix} -1 & y & -1 \\ -1 & -1 & z \\ x & 1 & 1 \\ \end{pmatrix} = \begin{pmatrix} a & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & b & 0 \\ 1 & 1 & c \\ \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} -1 & 1 & -1 \\ 0 & 1 & 2 \\ 0 & 2 & 0 \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ = \begin{pmatrix} -a & a & -a \\ -1 & 1 + b & 2b - 1 \\ -1 & 2c + 2 & 1 \\ \end{pmatrix} \\ 根据矩阵相等，其对应元素相等得$
$\left \{ \begin{array}{l} a = 1 \\ b = -2 \\ c = -\dfrac{1}{2} \\ x = -1 \\ y = 1 \\ z = -5 \end{array} \right.$