震动与不稳定性
Eulerian微扰:在固定参考系中,有物理量 f f f,扰动量为 Δ f = f ( r ⃗ , t ) − f 0 ( r ⃗ , t ) \Delta f=f(\vec r,t)-f_0(\vec r, t) Δf=f(r,t)−f0(r,t)
Lagrangian微扰:在随着物质运动的参考系中,扰动量为:
δ
f
=
f
(
r
⃗
,
t
)
−
f
0
(
r
⃗
0
,
t
)
=
Δ
f
+
(
δ
r
⃗
⋅
∇
)
f
0
\delta f=f(\vec r,t)-f_0(\vec r_0, t)=\Delta f+(\delta \vec r\cdot \nabla)f_0
δf=f(r,t)−f0(r0,t)=Δf+(δr⋅∇)f0
对于两种微扰而言:
∂
(
Δ
f
)
∂
t
=
Δ
∂
f
∂
t
∂
(
δ
f
)
∂
t
≠
δ
∂
f
∂
t
∇
(
Δ
f
)
=
Δ
(
∇
f
)
∇
(
δ
f
)
≠
δ
(
∇
f
)
d
(
δ
f
)
d
t
=
δ
d
f
d
t
d
(
Δ
f
)
d
t
≠
Δ
d
f
d
t
\begin{aligned} &\frac{\partial (\Delta f)}{\partial t}=\Delta \frac{\partial f}{\partial t} &\frac{\partial (\delta f)}{\partial t}\neq \delta\frac{\partial f}{\partial t}\\ & \nabla(\Delta f)=\Delta(\nabla f) & \nabla(\delta f)\neq \delta(\nabla f)\\ &\frac{d(\delta f)}{dt}=\delta\frac{df}{dt} & \frac{d(\Delta f)}{dt}\neq \Delta\frac{df}{dt} \end{aligned}
∂t∂(Δf)=Δ∂t∂f∇(Δf)=Δ(∇f)dtd(δf)=δdtdf∂t∂(δf)=δ∂t∂f∇(δf)=δ(∇f)dtd(Δf)=Δdtdf
由此,有
δ
u
⃗
=
d
(
δ
r
⃗
)
d
t
\delta\vec u=\dfrac{d(\delta\vec r)}{dt}
δu=dtd(δr)。如果在微扰前,流体的速度为
u
⃗
=
0
\vec u=0
u=0,则有
Δ
u
⃗
=
δ
u
⃗
\Delta\vec u=\delta \vec u
Δu=δu
因为
Δ
P
=
0
,
Δ
g
=
0
\Delta P=0,\ \Delta g =0
ΔP=0, Δg=0,所以流体元的位移方程为:
d
2
δ
r
⃗
d
t
2
=
−
1
ρ
+
Δ
ρ
∇
P
+
g
⃗
\frac{d^2\delta\vec r}{dt^2}=-\frac{1}{\rho+\Delta \rho}\nabla P + \vec g
dt2d2δr=−ρ+Δρ1∇P+g
由流体静力平衡方程
∇
P
+
ρ
g
⃗
=
0
\nabla P+\rho\vec g=0
∇P+ρg=0(保留一阶项得到下述方程):
d
2
δ
r
⃗
d
t
2
=
Δ
ρ
ρ
g
⃗
\frac{d^2\delta \vec r}{d t^2}=\frac{\Delta\rho}{\rho}\vec g
dt2d2δr=ρΔρg
其中:
Δ
ρ
ρ
=
δ
ρ
−
(
δ
r
⃗
⋅
∇
)
ρ
ρ
=
1
Γ
1
δ
P
P
−
1
ρ
(
δ
r
⃗
⋅
∇
)
ρ
=
1
Γ
1
Δ
P
P
+
(
δ
r
⃗
⋅
∇
)
[
1
Γ
1
ln
P
−
ln
ρ
]
\begin{aligned} \frac{\Delta\rho}{\rho}&=\frac{\delta \rho-(\delta\vec r\cdot\nabla)\rho}{\rho}\\ &=\frac{1}{\Gamma_1}\frac{\delta P}{P}-\frac{1}{\rho}(\delta\vec r\cdot\nabla)\rho\\ &=\frac{1}{\Gamma_1}\frac{\Delta P}{P}+(\delta\vec r\cdot\nabla)\left[\frac{1}{\Gamma_1}\ln P-\ln\rho\right] \end{aligned}
ρΔρ=ρδρ−(δr⋅∇)ρ=Γ11PδP−ρ1(δr⋅∇)ρ=Γ11PΔP+(δr⋅∇)[Γ11lnP−lnρ]
对径向振动膜而言:
d
2
δ
r
d
t
2
=
g
[
d
ln
ρ
d
t
−
1
Γ
1
d
ln
P
d
r
]
δ
r
≡
g
A
δ
r
\frac{d^2\delta r}{dt^2}=g\left[\frac{d\ln \rho}{dt}-\frac{1}{\Gamma_1}\frac{d\ln P}{dr}\right]\delta r\equiv g\mathcal A \delta r
dt2d2δr=g[dtdlnρ−Γ11drdlnP]δr≡gAδr
若
A
<
0
\mathcal A<0
A<0,则为振动模式,由此定义B-V频率
N
2
=
−
g
A
N^2=-g\mathcal A
N2=−gA,若
A
>
0
\mathcal A >0
A>0,则对流不稳定
非理想流体的Navier-Stokes方程为:
∂
u
⃗
∂
t
+
u
⃗
⋅
∇
u
⃗
=
−
∇
P
ρ
−
∇
Φ
+
1
ρ
∇
⋅
(
μ
∇
u
⃗
)
\frac{\partial \vec u}{\partial t}+\vec u\cdot\nabla\vec u=-\frac{\nabla P}{\rho}-\nabla\Phi+\frac{1}{\rho}\nabla\cdot (\mu\nabla\vec u)
∂t∂u+u⋅∇u=−ρ∇P−∇Φ+ρ1∇⋅(μ∇u)
其中,
μ
≈
1
3
n
m
v
T
l
\mu\approx \dfrac{1}{3}nmv_T l
μ≈31nmvTl,是动力学粘滞系数
对等温不可压缩流体而言:
∂
u
⃗
∂
t
+
u
⃗
⋅
∇
u
⃗
=
−
∇
P
ρ
−
∇
Φ
+
v
∇
2
u
⃗
\frac{\partial \vec u}{\partial t}+\vec u\cdot\nabla\vec u=-\frac{\nabla P}{\rho}-\nabla\Phi+v\nabla^2 \vec u
∂t∂u+u⋅∇u=−ρ∇P−∇Φ+v∇2u
其中,
u
=
μ
ρ
≈
1
3
v
T
λ
u=\dfrac{\mu}{\rho}\approx\dfrac{1}{3}v_T\lambda
u=ρμ≈31vTλ,是粘滞系数。流体方程取特征量为单位无量纲化,由此取特征尺度
L
L
L,特征速度
U
U
U,
u
~
≡
u
⃗
U
,
x
~
=
x
L
,
t
~
≡
t
U
L
,
P
=
ρ
c
s
2
\tilde u\equiv \dfrac{\vec u}{U},\ \tilde x=\dfrac{x}{L},\ \tilde t\equiv \dfrac{tU}{L},\ P=\rho c^2_s
u~≡Uu, x~=Lx, t~≡LtU, P=ρcs2。在一维情形下:
∂
u
~
∂
t
~
+
u
~
⋅
∂
u
~
∂
x
~
=
−
c
s
2
U
2
∂
ln
ρ
∂
x
~
+
v
U
L
∂
2
u
~
∂
x
~
2
−
1
U
2
∂
Φ
∂
x
~
\frac{\partial\tilde u}{\partial\tilde t}+\tilde u\cdot \frac{\partial \tilde u}{\partial \tilde x}=-\frac{c^2_s}{U^2}\frac{\partial\ln\rho}{\partial\tilde x}+\frac{v}{UL}\frac{\partial^2\tilde u}{\partial \tilde x^2}-\frac{1}{U^2}\frac{\partial\Phi}{\partial\tilde x}
∂t~∂u~+u~⋅∂x~∂u~=−U2cs2∂x~∂lnρ+ULv∂x~2∂2u~−U21∂x~∂Φ
其中有两个主要参数,分别为Mach Number:
m
≡
U
c
s
m\equiv \dfrac{U}{c_s}
m≡csU,和Reynolds Number:
R
E
≡
U
L
v
\mathcal RE\equiv \dfrac{UL}{v}
RE≡vUL
一般系统, R E \mathcal RE RE足够大(>200)时,出现湍流,而 R E \mathcal RE RE小时,则出现层流
对流的混合程理论
混合程是在湍动的流体中,性质保持均匀的波包消失在背景之前的一段距离
关于混合程的基本图像:对流元上升与下降的质量流平衡,对流区基本只有上升或者下降对流元这两种。假定对流元产生,在经过一段距离 l m = α λ P l_m=\alpha\lambda_P lm=αλP后( λ P ≡ P ∣ d P d r ∣ = − d r d ln P \lambda_P\equiv\dfrac{P}{|\frac{dP}{dr}|}=-\dfrac{dr}{d\ln P} λP≡∣drdP∣P=−dlnPdr)融入周围物质。按照这个基本图像,只需要单位时间质量流率以及对流元的能量差,就可以给出能流
温度差:
Δ
T
=
(
∣
d
T
d
r
∣
e
−
∣
d
T
d
r
∣
∗
)
l
m
≡
l
m
Δ
∇
T
\Delta T=\left(\left|\frac{dT}{dr}\right|_e-\left|\frac{dT}{dr}\right|_\ast\right)l_m\equiv l_m\Delta\nabla T
ΔT=(∣∣∣∣drdT∣∣∣∣e−∣∣∣∣drdT∣∣∣∣∗)lm≡lmΔ∇T
温度梯度差:
Δ
∇
T
=
(
∇
e
−
∇
∗
)
T
λ
P
\Delta\nabla T=(\nabla_e-\nabla_\ast)\frac{T}{\lambda_P}
Δ∇T=(∇e−∇∗)λPT
能量差(对半除是因为平均只运动一半的距离):
Δ
Q
=
c
P
Δ
T
2
=
c
p
l
m
Δ
∇
T
2
\Delta Q=\frac{c_P\Delta T}{2}=\frac{c_p l_m\Delta\nabla T}{2}
ΔQ=2cPΔT=2cplmΔ∇T
能流即为:
F
=
ρ
v
ˉ
Δ
Q
=
ρ
v
ˉ
c
P
l
m
Δ
∇
T
2
F=\rho\bar v\Delta Q=\frac{\rho \bar v c_P l_m \Delta\nabla T}{2}
F=ρvˉΔQ=2ρvˉcPlmΔ∇T
计算能流时,需要知道对流元的平均速度。首先计算单位质量的浮力:
Δ
ρ
=
(
∣
d
ρ
d
r
∣
e
−
∣
d
ρ
d
r
∣
∗
)
l
m
≡
l
m
Δ
∇
ρ
Δ
ˉ
ρ
≈
1
2
l
m
Δ
∇
ρ
f
ˉ
≈
g
Δ
ˉ
ρ
=
1
2
g
l
m
Δ
∇
ρ
\Delta \rho=\left(\left|\frac{d\rho}{dr}\right|_e-\left|\frac{d\rho}{dr}\right|_\ast\right)l_m\equiv l_m\Delta\nabla \rho\\ \bar \Delta\rho\approx\frac{1}{2}l_m\Delta\nabla\rho\\ \bar f\approx g\bar\Delta\rho=\frac{1}{2}gl_m\Delta\nabla\rho
Δρ=(∣∣∣∣drdρ∣∣∣∣e−∣∣∣∣drdρ∣∣∣∣∗)lm≡lmΔ∇ρΔˉρ≈21lmΔ∇ρfˉ≈gΔˉρ=21glmΔ∇ρ
浮力提供的能量有一半用来推动周围介质,一半用来加速:
1
2
f
ˉ
l
m
=
1
2
ρ
v
2
\frac{1}{2}\bar f l_m=\frac{1}{2}\rho v^2
21fˉlm=21ρv2
得到:
v
ˉ
=
1
2
(
g
2
ρ
Δ
∇
ρ
)
1
2
l
m
\bar v=\frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{g}{2\rho}\Delta\nabla \rho\right)^\frac{1}{2}l_m
vˉ=21(2ρgΔ∇ρ)21lm
假设满足条件:
v
≪
c
s
v\ll c_s
v≪cs,则有:
Δ
∇
ρ
=
−
δ
ρ
T
Δ
∇
T
=
δ
ρ
λ
P
(
∇
∗
−
∇
e
)
δ
=
(
∂
ln
ρ
∂
ln
T
)
P
\Delta\nabla \rho=-\frac{\delta\rho}{T}\Delta\nabla T=\frac{\delta\rho}{\lambda_P}(\nabla_\ast-\nabla_e)\\ \delta = \left(\frac{\partial \ln \rho}{\partial \ln T}\right)_P
Δ∇ρ=−TδρΔ∇T=λPδρ(∇∗−∇e)δ=(∂lnT∂lnρ)P
对于理想气体而言,
P
=
ρ
μ
m
H
k
T
,
δ
=
−
1
P=\dfrac{\rho}{\mu m_H}kT,\ \delta=-1
P=μmHρkT, δ=−1,因此热对流能流为:
F
c
o
n
v
=
ρ
v
ˉ
c
p
l
m
Δ
∇
T
2
≈
ρ
c
p
(
G
m
T
r
2
)
1
2
(
Δ
∇
T
)
3
2
l
m
2
4
2
=
1
4
2
ρ
c
p
T
g
λ
P
(
∇
∗
−
∇
e
)
3
2
α
2
\begin{aligned} F_{conv}&=\frac{\rho\bar v c_p l_m \Delta\nabla T}{2}\approx \rho c_p\left(\frac{Gm}{Tr^2}\right)^\frac{1}{2}(\Delta\nabla T)^\frac{3}{2}\frac{l^2_m}{4\sqrt{2}}\\ &=\frac{1}{4\sqrt{2}}\rho c_p T\sqrt{g\lambda_P}(\nabla_\ast-\nabla_e)^\frac{3}{2}\alpha^2 \end{aligned}
Fconv=2ρvˉcplmΔ∇T≈ρcp(Tr2Gm)21(Δ∇T)2342lm2=421ρcpTgλP(∇∗−∇e)23α2
对于太阳而言,大致有
α
=
1.6
\alpha=1.6
α=1.6
如果恒星光度以对流运输为主,则温度梯度为:
(
∇
∗
−
∇
e
)
3
2
=
L
r
4
π
r
2
ρ
c
p
T
g
λ
P
α
−
2
=
L
r
4
π
r
2
ρ
c
p
T
α
2
G
m
(
λ
P
/
r
)
(\nabla_\ast-\nabla_e)^\frac{3}{2}=\frac{L_r}{4\pi r^2\rho c_p T\sqrt{g\lambda_P}}\alpha^{-2}=\frac{L_r}{4\pi r^2 \rho c_p T\alpha^2\sqrt{Gm(\lambda_P/r)}}
(∇∗−∇e)23=4πr2ρcpTgλPLrα−2=4πr2ρcpTα2Gm(λP/r)Lr
对于太阳的对流层而言,
∇
e
−
∇
∗
∼
1
0
−
10
\nabla_e-\nabla_\ast\sim 10^{-10}
∇e−∇∗∼10−10
如果对流元上升没有能量损失,即
∇
e
=
∇
a
d
\nabla_e=\nabla_{ad}
∇e=∇ad,能量主要通过辐射损失:
d
T
d
x
≈
T
e
−
T
d
2
=
T
(
∇
−
∇
e
)
l
m
2
λ
P
2
d
=
T
(
∇
−
∇
e
)
λ
P
l
m
d
\frac{dT}{dx}\approx\frac{T_e-T}{\frac{d}{2}}=T(\nabla-\nabla_e)\frac{l_m}{2\lambda_P}\frac{2}{d}=\frac{T(\nabla-\nabla_e)}{\lambda_P}\frac{l_m}{d}
dxdT≈2dTe−T=T(∇−∇e)2λPlmd2=λPT(∇−∇e)dlm
对流元的直径为
d
d
d,单位时间内的辐射损失为:
d
Q
d
t
=
−
4
a
c
T
3
3
κ
d
T
d
x
S
=
−
4
a
c
T
4
3
κ
ρ
(
∇
−
∇
e
)
λ
P
l
m
d
S
\frac{dQ}{dt}=-\frac{4acT^3}{3\kappa}\frac{dT}{dx}S=-\frac{4acT^4}{3\kappa\rho}\frac{(\nabla-\nabla_e)}{\lambda_P}\frac{l_m}{d}S
dtdQ=−3κ4acT3dxdTS=−3κρ4acT4λP(∇−∇e)dlmS
辐射损失引起的温度梯度为:
(
d
T
d
r
)
r
,
l
o
s
s
=
(
d
T
d
r
)
e
−
(
d
T
d
r
)
a
d
=
−
1
ρ
V
c
p
d
Q
d
t
d
t
d
r
=
−
1
ρ
V
c
p
v
d
Q
d
t
=
1
ρ
c
p
v
4
a
c
T
4
3
κ
ρ
(
∇
−
∇
e
)
λ
P
l
m
d
S
V
\begin{aligned} \left(\frac{dT}{dr}\right)_{r,loss}&=\left(\frac{dT}{dr}\right)_e-\left(\frac{dT}{dr}\right)_{ad}\\ &=-\frac{1}{\rho Vc_p}\frac{dQ}{dt}\frac{dt}{dr}\\ &=-\frac{1}{\rho Vc_p v}\frac{dQ}{dt}\\ &=\frac{1}{\rho c_p v}\frac{4acT^4}{3\kappa \rho}\frac{(\nabla-\nabla_e)}{\lambda_P}\frac{l_m}{d}\frac{S}{V} \end{aligned}
(drdT)r,loss=(drdT)e−(drdT)ad=−ρVcp1dtdQdrdt=−ρVcpv1dtdQ=ρcpv13κρ4acT4λP(∇−∇e)dlmVS
又有:
(
d
T
d
r
)
e
−
(
d
T
d
r
)
a
d
=
−
(
∇
e
−
∇
a
d
)
T
λ
P
\left(\frac{dT}{dr}\right)_e-\left(\frac{dT}{dr}\right)_{ad}=-(\nabla_e-\nabla_{ad})\frac{T}{\lambda_P}
(drdT)e−(drdT)ad=−(∇e−∇ad)λPT
由此得到:
∇
e
−
∇
a
d
=
−
4
a
c
T
3
3
κ
ρ
2
c
p
v
(
∇
−
∇
e
)
l
m
d
S
V
\nabla_e-\nabla_{ad}=-\frac{4acT^3}{3\kappa\rho^2 c_p v}(\nabla-\nabla_e)\frac{l_m}{d}\frac{S}{V}
∇e−∇ad=−3κρ2cpv4acT3(∇−∇e)dlmVS
对于尺度为
l
m
l_m
lm的对流元几何球状球形,文献经常采用
l
m
S
V
d
≈
9
/
2
l
m
\dfrac{l_m S}{Vd}\approx\dfrac{9/2}{l_m}
VdlmS≈lm9/2,由此:
∇
e
−
∇
a
d
∇
−
∇
e
=
6
a
c
T
3
κ
ρ
2
c
p
v
l
m
\frac{\nabla_e-\nabla_{ad}}{\nabla-\nabla_e}=\frac{6acT^3}{\kappa\rho^2c_p vl_m}
∇−∇e∇e−∇ad=κρ2cpvlm6acT3
将
v
=
l
m
[
G
m
δ
(
∇
−
∇
e
)
8
r
2
λ
p
]
1
2
v=l_m\left[\dfrac{Gm\delta(\nabla-\nabla_e)}{8r^2\lambda_p}\right]^\frac{1}{2}
v=lm[8r2λpGmδ(∇−∇e)]21代入,得到:
∇
e
−
∇
a
d
[
δ
(
∇
−
∇
e
)
]
1
/
2
=
12
2
a
c
T
3
κ
ρ
2
c
p
l
m
g
λ
P
λ
p
l
m
\frac{\nabla_e-\nabla_{ad}}{[\delta(\nabla-\nabla_e)]^{1/2}}=\frac{12\sqrt{2}acT^3}{\kappa\rho^2 c_p l_m\sqrt{g\lambda_P}}\frac{\lambda_p}{l_m}
[δ(∇−∇e)]1/2∇e−∇ad=κρ2cplmgλP122acT3lmλp
由能流的表达式:
{
F
t
o
t
=
F
r
a
d
+
F
c
n
v
=
l
4
π
r
2
=
4
a
c
G
m
T
4
3
κ
P
r
2
∇
r
a
d
F
r
a
d
=
−
4
a
c
T
3
3
κ
ρ
d
T
d
r
=
4
a
c
G
m
T
4
3
κ
P
r
2
∇
F
c
n
v
≈
1
4
2
ρ
c
p
T
g
δ
λ
P
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\left\{ \begin{aligned} F_{tot}&=F_{rad}+F_{cnv}=\frac{l}{4\pi r^2}=\frac{4acGmT^4}{3\kappa P r^2}\nabla_{rad}\\ F_{rad}&=-\frac{4acT^3}{3\kappa\rho}\frac{dT}{dr}=\frac{4acGmT^4}{3\kappa Pr^2}\nabla\\ F_{cnv}&\approx \frac{1}{4\sqrt{2}}\rho c_p T\sqrt{g\delta\lambda_P}(\nabla_\ast-\nabla_e)^{3/2}\alpha^2 \end{aligned} \right.
⎩⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎨⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎪⎧FtotFradFcnv=Frad+Fcnv=4πr2l=3κPr24acGmT4∇rad=−3κρ4acT3drdT=3κPr24acGmT4∇≈421ρcpTgδλP(∇∗−∇e)3/2α2
得到下述两个关系:
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\frac{(\nabla-\nabla_e)^{3/2}}{\nabla_{rad}-\nabla}=\frac{8acT^3}{3\kappa P\rho c_p \alpha^2}\sqrt{\frac{8g}{\delta \lambda_P}}\\ \nabla_{rad}=\frac{3\kappa Pl}{16\pi ac GmT^4}
∇rad−∇(∇−∇e)3/2=3κPρcpα28acT3δλP8g∇rad=16πacGmT43κPl
由上述各关系,即可得到热力学量表示的
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\nabla,\ \nabla_e
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在恒星内部,如果对流运输占主导,则温度梯度非常接近绝热温度梯度。但在恒星表面对流程,辐射损失是很重要的
辐射与热传导的比较
在恒星内部,热传导并不重要,但对于简并的电子而言, κ c o n d ∝ ρ − 2 T 2 \kappa_{cond}\propto \rho^{-2}T^2 κcond∝ρ−2T2,此时热传导重要