玛雅低地城市依赖湿地的高田耕作，但公元800年至1000年间该地区经历了严重的干旱。高人口、各玛雅群体间的竞争和战争在资源有限的情况下加剧了困难。干旱导致高田无法使用，社会、政治和文化背景下的应对措施未能防止危机和崩溃。
[ 练习 ]
① 谁该干这项⼯作，这个问题需要考虑。同位语[4]
The question who should do the work requires considerations.
② ⼈们认为他们可以利⽤假期从⽇常⽣活中获得⽚刻休息。宾语从句[3]
People think that they have vacations to take breaks from their daily routines.
③ 你的答案和他的到底有什么区别呢？强调句[4]
How is it your answer differs from his?
[ 独立主格 ]
[ 名词 / 代词 + 分词 ]
独立主格结构的 名词 / 代词 与 分词 之间有逻辑上的主谓关系
主谓关系 ≠ 主谓结构，独立主格 ≠ 句⼦
独立主格的主语 和 句子的主语 不⼀样
独立主格作状语表示时间、原因、条件、伴随、目的以及状态等，修饰整个句⼦。
The test finished, we began our holiday.
When the test was finished, we began our holiday.
考试结束了，我们开始放假。
[ 构成 ]
1. [ 名词 | 代词 ] + [ 名词 | 形容词 | 副词 | 现在分词 | 过去分词 | 不定式 | 介词短语 ]
① 名词 / 代词 + 现在分词 (doing)
⿊夜笼罩⼤地，谁也看不清远处⿊压压的⼀⽚是什么东西。
Night enshrouding the earth, nobody could make out what the dark mass was from a distance.
② 名词 / 代词 + 过去分词
他上课专⼼听讲，眼睛紧盯着⿊板。
He was listening attentively in class, his eyes fixed on the blackboard.
③ 名词 / 代词 + 不定式
两者如果是主动的逻辑关系，则用主动；如果是动宾关系，则用被动形式
我们四⼈同意分⼯⼲， 每⼈翻译全书的四分之⼀。
The four of us agreed on a division of labor, each to translate a quarter of the book.
种上许多的树、花和草后，我们新建的学校看上去将更美。
Many trees, flowers, and grass to be planted, our newly built school will look even more beautiful.
④ 名词 / 代词 + 形容词
电脑虽⼩，我们却能⼴泛地利⽤它们。
Computers very small, we can use them widely.
⑤ 名词 / 代词 + 副词
散会了，校长很快就离开了会议室。
The meeting over, our headmaster soon left the meeting room.
⑥ 名词 / 代词 + 名词
他第⼀枪没击中，又打了⼀枪。
His first shot failure, he fired again.
两百⼈死于事故，其中许多⼉童。
Two hundred people died in the accident, many of them children.
⑦ 名词 / 代词 + 介词短语
他的脊背朝天，四肢伸展，头枕着左臂，直挺挺地趴伏着。
He lay at full length upon his stomach, his head resting upon his left forearm
2. With，without 引导的独⽴结构
with (without) + 宾语（名词 / 代词）+ 宾语补⾜语
注：宾语通常⽤名词或代词充当，但必须⽤宾格。
He stood at the door, with a computer in his hand.
= He stood at the door, computer in hand.
[ 句法功能 ]
1. 作时间状语
The governor pondering the matter, more strikes gathered across his path.
总督思考问题时，更多的罢⼯⼯⼈聚集在他要通过的路上。
2. 作条件状语
Weather permitting, they will go on an outing to the beach tomorrow.
如果天⽓允许的话，他们将在明天组织⼀次滨海郊游。
3. 作原因状语
There being no further business to discuss, we all went home.
没有别的事可讨论，我们都回家了。
4. 作伴随状语或补充说明
Ten students entered for the competition, the youngest a boy of 12.
⼗个学⽣报名参加了这次竞赛，年级最⼩的是个12岁的男 孩。
5. 作定语（功能 = 定语从句）
He is the person with a lot of questions to be settled.
他就是有许多问题要解决的那个⼈。
[ 虚拟语气 ]
1. 虚拟 = ⾮真实 / 现实 / 事实 虚拟语⽓可表达怀疑、忧虑、推测、假设、想象或祝愿等。
① 和事实状况不符：如果我是你……
② 假设不能成真：如果我能长出翅膀……
2. 虚拟语⽓的时态
① 虚拟过去：不符合已经发⽣的事实，e.g. 如果我昨天没有……
② 虚拟将来：不太可能，e.g. 如果我明天被1000w砸到……
if虚拟条件句——全家都是过去式
| 虚拟条件句 | if从句 | 主句 | |
| 过去 | had done | would could should might | + have done |
| 现在 | did / were | + do | |
| 将来 | did / were | + do | |
| were to do | |||
| should do | |||
真实条件句 v.s. 虚拟条件句 形式：If + A, B.
① 如果我们能预防校园暴⼒，那么青少年犯罪率会⽐现在低得多。现在时 did were -- would do
If we could prevent school violence, the juvenile crime rate would be much lower than now.
② 要不是冰河世纪，恐龙可能存在得更久。过去时 had done -- would have done
If it had not been for the Ice Age, the dinosaurs might have survive much longer.
[ 练习 ]
1. if 虚拟条件句——虚拟过去 [ The Third Conditional ] had done + would have done
① 如果他当时没跑那么快，他就抓不到贼了。
If he had not run , he would have not caught the thief. catch--caught
② 如果你当时更⼩⼼，你就不会摔断腿了。
If you had been more careful, you would have not broken your leg.
2. if 虚拟条件句——虚拟现在 [ The Third Conditional ] did / were + would do
① 他没钱，如果他有钱，他会买⼀辆很快的车。
He doesn’t have any money. If he had the money, he would buy a fast car.
② Jane喜欢住在城⾥，如果她住在乡下，她会不开⼼。
Jane likes living in a city. She would be unhappy , if she lived in the country.
3. if 虚拟条件句——虚拟将来 [ The Third Conditional ]
did / were | were to do | should to do + would do
① 如果有来世，我将娶你为妻。
If I were to live my life again, I would have you as my wife.
In the future, if I had (have) a lot of money, I would buy a villa.
If that should happen, I would kill myself.
[ 阅读练习 ]
Yet it may be incorrect to lay the blame entirely on human action. Several of the lowland cities, such as Tikal, appear to have depended heavily on the cultivation of raised fields set in the marshy depressions known as bajos, which today flood intermittently in the rainy season but may originally have been permanent lakes. The raise-field system of intensive cultivation (created by digging surrounding canals and using the soil removed to elevate the fields for planting) allows year-round food production through the constant supply of soil nutrients that erode into the drainage ditches dug around the raised fields, nutrients that are then collected and replaced. Stable water levels were essential to this subsistence system, but evidence from Lake Chichancanab in Yucatan shows that between A.D 800 and A.D 1000 this region suffered its driest period of climate in several thousand years. We may expect that as a result water level fell, and the raised fields in many areas became unusable. But the human response must be viewed through the lens of the social, political, and cultural circumstances. These exerted a powerful mediating effect on the way the Maya endeavored to cope with their difficulties. Had population levels been lower, the impact of the drought may not have been catastrophic, as it was, the Maya were already reaching the limits of the available subsistence capacity, and Mayan elites had espoused certain social and political agendas (including expensive warfare and competition with each other).It was against this specific background that a period of drought led quickly to crisis and collapse.
12. According to paragraph 5, all of the following made it more difficult for the Maya to cope with effects of the drought EXCEPT
A. failure to properly cultivate the fields
B. high population levels
C. competition between Mayan groups
D. warfare
课堂练习及作业
① 谁该干这项工作，这个问题需要考虑。同位语[4]
The question who should do the work requires considerations.
② ⼈们认为他们可以利⽤假期从⽇常⽣活中获得⽚刻休息。宾语从句[3]
People think that they have vacations to take breaks from their daily routines.
③ 你的答案和他的到底有什么区别呢？强调句[4]
How is it your answer differs from his?
[ 构成 ]
1. [ 名词 | 代词 ] + [ 名词 | 形容词 | 副词 | 现在分词 | 过去分词 | 不定式 | 介词短语 ]
① 名词 / 代词 + 现在分词 (doing)
⿊夜笼罩⼤地，谁也看不清远处⿊压压的⼀⽚是什么东西。
Night enshrouding the earth, nobody could make out what the dark mass was from a distance.
② 名词 / 代词 + 过去分词
他上课专⼼听讲，眼睛紧盯着⿊板。
He was listening attentively in class, his eyes fixed on the blackboard.
③ 名词 / 代词 + 不定式
两者如果是主动的逻辑关系，则用主动；如果是动宾关系，则用被动形式
我们四⼈同意分⼯⼲， 每⼈翻译全书的四分之⼀。
The four of us agreed on a division of labor, each to translate a quarter of the book.
种上许多的树、花和草后，我们新建的学校看上去将更美。
Many trees, flowers, and grass to be planted, our newly built school will look even more beautiful.
④ 名词 / 代词 + 形容词
电脑虽⼩，我们却能⼴泛地利⽤它们。
Computers very small, we can use them widely.
⑤ 名词 / 代词 + 副词
散会了，校长很快就离开了会议室。
The meeting over, our headmaster soon left the meeting room.
⑥ 名词 / 代词 + 名词
他第⼀枪没击中，又打了⼀枪。
His first shot failure, he fired again.
两百⼈死于事故，其中许多⼉童。
Two hundred people died in the accident, many of them children.
⑦ 名词 / 代词 + 介词短语
他的脊背朝天，四肢伸展，头枕着左臂，直挺挺地趴伏着。
He lay at full length upon his stomach, his head resting upon his left forearm
2. With，without 引导的独⽴结构
with (without) + 宾语（名词 / 代词）+ 宾语补⾜语
注：宾语通常⽤名词或代词充当，但必须⽤宾格。
He stood at the door, with a computer in his hand.
= He stood at the door, computer in hand.
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