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圆周率 π \pi π 和 Euler 常数 e e e 的构造
圆周率 π \pi π 的构造
我们将以下数列的极限定义为
π
\pi
π
L
n
=
n
⋅
sin
18
0
∘
n
L_n=n\cdot\sin{\frac{180^{\circ}}{n}}
Ln=n⋅sinn180∘
数列
L
n
L_n
Ln 的几何意义即为单位圆内接正
n
n
n 边形的半周长
证明思路:(单调有界数列必收敛)
L
n
L_n
Ln 单调递增:即证
n
sin
18
0
∘
n
≤
(
n
+
1
)
sin
18
0
∘
n
+
1
n\sin{\frac{180^{\circ}}{n}}\leq (n+1)\sin{\frac{180^{\circ}}{n+1}}
nsinn180∘≤(n+1)sinn+1180∘,作代换
t
=
18
0
∘
n
(
n
+
1
)
t=\frac{180^{\circ}}{n(n+1)}
t=n(n+1)180∘,即证
n
sin
(
n
+
1
)
t
≤
(
n
+
1
)
sin
n
t
n\sin{(n+1)t}\leq (n+1)\sin{nt}
nsin(n+1)t≤(n+1)sinnt注意到
tan
n
t
=
tan
(
n
−
1
)
t
+
tan
t
1
−
tan
(
n
−
1
)
t
tan
t
≥
tan
(
n
−
1
)
t
+
tan
t
≥
n
tan
t
\begin{split} \tan{nt}&=\frac{\tan{(n-1)t}+\tan{t}}{1-\tan{(n-1)t}\tan{t}}\\ &\geq \tan{(n-1)t}+\tan{t}\\ &\geq n\tan{t} \end{split}
tannt=1−tan(n−1)ttanttan(n−1)t+tant≥tan(n−1)t+tant≥ntant则
sin
(
n
+
1
)
t
=
sin
n
t
cos
t
+
cos
n
t
sin
t
=
sin
n
t
cos
t
(
1
+
tan
t
tan
n
t
)
≤
sin
n
t
(
1
+
1
n
)
\begin{split} \sin{(n+1)t}&=\sin{nt}\cos{t}+\cos{nt}\sin{t}\\ &=\sin{nt}\cos{t}(1+\frac{\tan{t}}{\tan{nt}})\\ &\leq \sin{nt}(1+\frac{1}{n}) \end{split}
sin(n+1)t=sinntcost+cosntsint=sinntcost(1+tannttant)≤sinnt(1+n1)
L
n
L_n
Ln 有上界:设单位圆内接正
n
n
n 边形的面积为
S
n
S_n
Sn ,则
S
n
=
n
⋅
sin
18
0
∘
n
⋅
cos
18
0
∘
n
<
4
S_n=n\cdot\sin{\frac{180^{\circ}}{n}}\cdot\cos{\frac{180^{\circ}}{n}}<4
Sn=n⋅sinn180∘⋅cosn180∘<4故
L
n
=
n
⋅
sin
18
0
∘
n
<
4
cos
18
0
∘
n
≤
4
cos
6
0
∘
=
8
L_n=n\cdot\sin{\frac{180^{\circ}}{n}}<\frac{4}{\cos{\frac{180^{\circ}}{n}}}\leq \frac{4}{\cos{60^{\circ}}}=8
Ln=n⋅sinn180∘<cosn180∘4≤cos60∘4=8
Euler常数e的构造
我们将e定义为极限 lim n → ∞ ( 1 + 1 n ) n \lim\limits_{n\to \infty}(1+\frac{1}{n})^n n→∞lim(1+n1)n,首先来证明这个极限的存在性
证明思路:(单调有界数列必收敛)
- k ! ≥ 2 k − 1 k!\geq 2^{k-1} k!≥2k−1:数学归纳法易证
-
(
1
+
1
n
)
n
≤
∑
k
=
0
n
1
k
!
(1+\frac{1}{n})^n\leq \sum\limits_{k=0}^n\frac{1}{k!}
(1+n1)n≤k=0∑nk!1:二项式定理展开
( 1 + 1 n ) n = ∑ k = 0 n C n k 1 n k = ∑ k = 0 n 1 k ! ( 1 − 1 n ) ( 1 − 2 n ) ⋯ ( 1 − k − 1 n ) ≤ ∑ k = 0 n 1 k ! \begin{split} (1+\frac{1}{n})^n&=\sum\limits_{k=0}^nC_n^k\frac{1}{n^k}\\ &=\sum\limits_{k=0}^n\frac{1}{k!}(1-\frac{1}{n})(1-\frac{2}{n})\cdots(1-\frac{k-1}{n})\\ &\leq \sum\limits_{k=0}^{n}\frac{1}{k!}\\ \end{split} (1+n1)n=k=0∑nCnknk1=k=0∑nk!1(1−n1)(1−n2)⋯(1−nk−1)≤k=0∑nk!1 - x n = ( 1 + 1 n ) n x_n=(1+\frac{1}{n})^n xn=(1+n1)n有界:$ x n ≤ 1 + 1 + ∑ k = 1 n 1 2 k < 3 x_n\leq 1+1+\sum\limits_{k=1}^n\frac{1}{2^k}<3 xn≤1+1+k=1∑n2k1<3
-
{
x
n
}
\{x_n\}
{xn}单调递增:
( 1 + 1 n ) n = ∑ k = 0 n 1 k ! ( 1 − 1 n ) ( 1 − 2 n ) ⋯ ( 1 − k − 1 n ) < ∑ k = 0 n + 1 1 k ! ( 1 − 1 n ) ( 1 − 2 n ) ⋯ ( 1 − k − 1 n + 1 ) = ( 1 + 1 n + 1 ) n + 1 \begin{split} (1+\frac{1}{n})^n&=\sum\limits_{k=0}^n\frac{1}{k!}(1-\frac{1}{n})(1-\frac{2}{n})\cdots(1-\frac{k-1}{n})\\ &<\sum\limits_{k=0}^{n+1}\frac{1}{k!}(1-\frac{1}{n})(1-\frac{2}{n})\cdots(1-\frac{k-1}{n+1})\\ &=(1+\frac{1}{n+1})^{n+1} \end{split} (1+n1)n=k=0∑nk!1(1−n1)(1−n2)⋯(1−nk−1)<k=0∑n+1k!1(1−n1)(1−n2)⋯(1−n+1k−1)=(1+n+11)n+1
根据上述e的定义,可得出一个重要结论: e = ∑ k = 0 ∞ 1 k ! e=\sum\limits_{k=0}^{\infty}\frac{1}{k!} e=k=0∑∞k!1证明思路:先证级数收敛,再证 A ≥ B , B ≥ A A\geq B,B\geq A A≥B,B≥A
- 级数 ∑ k = 1 ∞ 1 2 k \sum\limits_{k=1}^{\infty}\frac{1}{2^k} k=1∑∞2k1收敛,故为Cauchy列
- 级数
∑
k
=
2
∞
1
k
!
\sum\limits_{k=2}^{\infty}\frac{1}{k!}
k=2∑∞k!1收敛
1 ( n + 1 ) ! + ⋯ + 1 ( n + m ) ! ≤ 1 2 n + 1 + ⋯ + 1 2 n + m < ε \frac{1}{(n+1)!}+\cdots+\frac{1}{(n+m)!}\leq \frac{1}{2^{n+1}}+\cdots+\frac{1}{2^{n+m}}<\varepsilon (n+1)!1+⋯+(n+m)!1≤2n+11+⋯+2n+m1<ε -
e
≤
∑
k
=
0
∞
1
k
!
e\leq \sum\limits_{k=0}^{\infty}\frac{1}{k!}
e≤k=0∑∞k!1
( 1 + 1 n ) n ≤ ∑ k = 0 ∞ 1 k ! (1+\frac{1}{n})^n\leq \sum\limits_{k=0}^{\infty}\frac{1}{k!} (1+n1)n≤k=0∑∞k!1 -
e
≥
∑
k
=
0
∞
1
k
!
e\geq \sum\limits_{k=0}^{\infty}\frac{1}{k!}
e≥k=0∑∞k!1:利用
{
x
n
}
\{x_n\}
{xn}是单调递增的
e = lim m → ∞ ( 1 + 1 m ) m ≥ ( 1 + 1 n ) n = ∑ k = 0 n 1 k ! ( 1 − 1 n ) ( 1 − 2 n ) ⋯ ( 1 − k − 1 n ) ≥ ∑ k = 0 n 0 1 k ! ( 1 − 1 n ) ( 1 − 2 n ) ⋯ ( 1 − k − 1 n ) \begin{split} e&=\lim\limits_{m\to\infty}(1+\frac{1}{m})^m\geq (1+\frac{1}{n})^n\\ &=\sum\limits_{k=0}^n\frac{1}{k!}(1-\frac{1}{n})(1-\frac{2}{n})\cdots(1-\frac{k-1}{n})\\ &\geq \sum\limits_{k=0}^{n_0}\frac{1}{k!}(1-\frac{1}{n})(1-\frac{2}{n})\cdots(1-\frac{k-1}{n})\\ \end{split} e=m→∞lim(1+m1)m≥(1+n1)n=k=0∑nk!1(1−n1)(1−n2)⋯(1−nk−1)≥k=0∑n0k!1(1−n1)(1−n2)⋯(1−nk−1)固定 n 0 n_0 n0,令 n → ∞ n\to\infty n→∞,得 e ≥ ∑ k = 0 n 0 1 k ! e\geq \sum\limits_{k=0}^{n_0}\frac{1}{k!} e≥k=0∑n0k!1
令 n 0 → ∞ n_0\to\infty n0→∞,得 e ≥ ∑ k = 0 ∞ 1 k ! e\geq \sum\limits_{k=0}^{\infty}\frac{1}{k!} e≥k=0∑∞k!1
总结: e = lim n → ∞ ( 1 + 1 n ) n = ∑ k = 0 ∞ 1 k ! e=\lim\limits_{n\to \infty}(1+\frac{1}{n})^n=\sum\limits_{k=0}^{\infty}\frac{1}{k!} e=n→∞lim(1+n1)n=k=0∑∞k!1
参考书:
- 《数学分析》陈纪修 於崇华 金路
- 《数学分析之课程讲义》清华大学数学系及丘成桐数学中心
- 《数学分析习题课讲义》谢惠民 恽自求 易法槐 钱定边 著