Concrete

Introduce about concrete

• nowadays, concrete is made from mixing cement(水泥) with
  aggregates(骨料), water and possibly admixtures(混合剂);
• globally, the demand for concrete is only second to water. this is
  forecast to rise even further;
• approximately 4.2 million tonnes of cement is produced annually;
• cement production accounts for~5% of man-made CO₂;
  

Cement

• presently, 27 classes of common cements (clinker(熟料) +SCMs are
  standardiized–see EN 197-1);
• special cements(特种水泥) include geopolymer(地聚合物), high- alumina
  (高铝)(CSA) and magnesium based cement(镁基水泥) are available;
• what does the cement do and what to look out for?
• binder(粘合剂), hence high strength, usually 28d specified;
• setting- how long can you work it before it hardens;
• dimensional stabulity-shrinkage and creep etc(混凝土徐变收缩);
• durability(耐久性)-resistance to aggressive agents;
• cement type and content and dictated by strength(强度) and
  durability–see EN 206;

Aggregates

• essentially gravel(砾石);
• they are used in concrete because they possess strength(有强度) and they
  reduce paste(净浆) volume;
• usually classified by mean particle size via sieve analysis–fine(<5
  mm), coarse(10-40mm);
• used to be quarried(开采) gravels, but recycled and manufactured (i.e.
  lightweight) options available;
• generally inert(惰性的)\ but must be durable against forst, ASR and
  thaumasite (only carbonaceous agg.);
  

Water

• EN 1008 requires that water for concrete to be of a suitable quality;
• water is required for the cement to react, hydration(水化);
• the codes define the w/c ratios depending on:
• strength class(i.e. compressive strength);
• exposure class=durability(暴露度);

W/C ratio

Admixtures

• the are components which may be added to modify the fresh or hardened
  properties of concrete(改变混凝土的新鲜或坚硬程度);
• include:
• water reducing admixtures;
• shrinkage reducing(减缩) admixtures;
• corrosion inhibitors(缓蚀剂);
• air-entrainment admixtures;
• pigments(颜料);
• fibres;

Classification of concrete

• concrete may be classified in terms of properties, production,
  reinforcement etc;
• performance/properties:
• self-compacting-flowability;
• high/ low performance-structural/non-structural;
• production:
  • lightweight, aerated concrete-low density;
• ready-mixed, precast;
• reinforcement
• mass/reinforced, fibre reinforced, pre-stressed concrete;

pre-stressed concrete

(预应力混凝土)
为了充分利用高强度材料，弥补混凝土与钢筋拉应变之间的差距，人们把预应力运用到钢筋混凝土结构中去。亦即在外荷载作用到构件上之前，预先用某种方法，在构件上(主要在受拉区)施加压，当构件承受由外荷载产生的拉力时，首先抵消混凝土中已有的预压力，然后随荷载增加，才能使混凝土受拉而后出现裂缝，因而延迟了构件裂缝的出现和开展------- 百度

• concrete strong in compression but weak in tension;

• in RC, concrete cracks under tension leading to stress transfer to
  the steel;

• excessive cracks violates serviceability criteria;

• prestressed concrete induces internal compression on concrete to
  reduce tensile stresses;

• there sre 2 approaches: pre-tensioning(预张法) and post tensioning(后张法);

• applications include beams, slabs, bridge decks;

• prestressed concrete is cambered(拱形的) initially under dead load but
  remains uncracked at full prestress(全预应力);

• pre-tensioning:

  • steel strands(钢绞线) or tendons(钢索) are stressed before casting concrete;
  • stress released once concrete is set;

• post-tensioning:

  • concrete is cast with preformed ducts;
  • strands inserted, stressed and then grounted on site;

• 介绍: link
  

Specification of concrete

• specifications aim to define what is required and how the
  requirements may be achieved;
• prescriptive and performance-based approaches are permitted in EN
  206;

strength-based specification

Production of concrete

procedure involves:
mix design–BRE;
material selection & procurement;
trial mixes;
batching-volume/mass;
transporting;
delivery;
placing;

Placing concrete on site

• study the work programme and materials schedule order correct
  quanlitity when required;
• concrete has a limited workable life=setting time;
• must be placed before the final set -varies with type of cement,
  admixtures and W/C ratio;

水下浇筑混凝土：
在干处进行拌制，而在水下浇筑和硬化的混凝土，叫做水下混凝土。混凝土在水下虽然可以凝固硬化，但浇筑质量较差。
对水下浇筑混凝土要求较高，必须具有水下不分离性、自密实性、低泌水性和缓凝等特性。
水下砼为水中浇注的砼，根据水深确定施工方法，较浅时，可用倾倒法施工，水深较深时，可用竖管法浇注，一般配合比同陆上砼相同，但由于受水的影响，一般会比同条件下的陆上砼低一个强度等级，所以应提高一个强度等级，如要求达到C25，应配到C30。另外，还有一种加速凝剂的方法，比较可靠，但造价比较高， 水下混凝土标号不低于C25。
link

Health and safety in concrete

quicklime(生石灰)
Cao+H₂O=Ca(OH)₂;
this is caustic and can burn;

Ovweview of durability of concrete

quicklime;
Cao+H₂O=Ca(OH)₂, this keeps pH>=12;
vital for maintaining the internal environment;

Emerging concrete technologies

• engineered composite cement concrete;
• utilizes micro fibres(微纤维) with high tensile capacity e.g. PVA,PP
  instead of rebars; requires special concrete mix design;
• some of my recent projects focusing on lightweight ECC(engineered
  cementitious composites 韧型纤维混凝土);
• **3D printed concrete -CAD model+ machine extruded;**
• this means that, shapes can be optimized;
• techniques requires optimum fresh state(rheology 流变学) and hardened
  properties-non trivial;
• challenges include stability of layers(各层), reinforcement, cold
  joint;
  

Summary

• concrete is a versatile(通用的) construction material, variable
  compositionally, requires attention;
• economical, sustainable;
• production and placing methods considered;
• opportunities to optimize performance-strength and durability;
• emerging concrete technologies;
• high risk, personal protection equipment considered;