Real-Time Rendering——9.6 Microgeometry微观几何

As we discussed earlier in Section 9.1.3, surface irregularities much smaller than a pixel cannot feasibly be modeled explicitly, so the BRDF instead models their aggregate effect statistically. For now we keep to the domain of geometrical optics, which assumes that these irregularities either are smaller than a light wavelength (and so have no effect on the light’s behavior) or are much larger. The effects of irregularities that are in the “wave optics domain” (around 1–100 wavelengths in size) will be discussed in Section 9.11.

正如我们之前在第9.1.3节中所讨论的，远小于一个像素的表面不规则性无法明确建模，因此BRDF以统计方式对其总体效应建模。目前，我们仍停留在几何光学领域，它假设这些不规则性要么比光的波长小(因此对光的行为没有影响)，要么大得多。“波动光学域”(大约1-100个波长)中的不规则性的影响将在第9.11节中讨论。

Each visible surface point contains many microsurface normals that bounce the reflected light in different directions. Since the orientations of individual microfacets are somewhat random, it makes sense to model them as a statistical distribution. For most surfaces, the distribution of microgeometry surface normals is continuous, with a strong peak at the macroscopic surface normal. The “tightness” of this distribution is determined by the surface roughness. The rougher the surface, the more “spread out” the microgeometry normals will be.

每个可见曲面点包含许多微曲面法线，这些法线将反射光反射到不同的方向。由于单个微相的取向多少有些随机，因此将其建模为统计分布是有意义的。对于大多数表面，微观几何表面法线的分布是连续的，在宏观表面法线处有一个强峰值。这种分布的“紧密度”是由表面粗糙度决定的。表面越粗糙，微几何法线就越“分散”。

The visible effect of increasing microscale roughness is greater blurring of reflected environmental detail. In the case of small, bright light sources, this blurring results in broader and dimmer specular highlights. Those from rougher surfaces are dimmer because the light energy is spread into a wider cone of directions. This phenomenon can be seen in the photographs in Figure 9.12 on page 305.

增加微尺度粗糙度的可见效果是反射的环境细节更加模糊。在小而亮的光源的情况下，这种模糊会导致更宽和更暗的镜面高光。来自粗糙表面的光线较暗，因为光能传播到更宽的方向锥。这种现象可以在305页图9.12的照片中看到。

Figure 9.25 shows how visible reflectance results from the aggregate reflections of the individual microscale surface details. The series of images shows a curved surface lit by a single light, with bumps that steadily decrease in scale until in the last image the bumps are much smaller than a single pixel. Statistical patterns in the many small highlights eventually become details in the shape of the resulting aggregate highlight. For example, the relative sparsity of individual bump highlights in the periphery becomes the relative darkness of the aggregate highlight away from its center.

图9.25显示了可见反射率是如何由单个微尺度表面细节的总反射产生的。这一系列图像显示了一个由单一光源照亮的曲面，其凸起的比例稳步下降，直到最后一幅图像中的凸起比单个像素小得多。许多小亮点中的统计模式最终成为所产生的总亮点形状中的细节。例如，外围中单个凹凸高光的相对稀疏性成为远离其中心的聚集高光的相对暗度。

Figure 9.25. Gradual transition from visible detail to microscale. The sequence of images goes top row left to right, then bottom row left to right. The surface shape and lighting are constant. Only the scale of the surface detail changes. 

图9.25。从可见细节到微观尺度的逐渐过渡。图像的顺序是顶行从左到右，然后底行从左到右。表面形状和光照是恒定的。只有表面细节的比例会改变。

For most surfaces, the distribution of the microscale surface normals is isotropic, meaning it is rotationally symmetrical, lacking any inherent directionality. Other surfaces have microscale structure that is anisotropic. Such surfaces have anisotropic surface normal distributions, leading to directional blurring of reflections and highlights.See Figure 9.26.

对于大多数曲面，微尺度曲面法线的分布是各向同性的，这意味着它是旋转对称的，缺乏任何固有的方向性。其他表面具有各向异性的微尺度结构。这种表面具有各向异性的表面法线分布，导致反射和高光的方向模糊。参见图9.26。

Figure 9.26. On the left, an anisotropic surface (brushed metal). Note the directional blurring of reflections. On the right, a photomicrograph showing a similar surface. Note the directionality of the detail. (Photomicrograph courtesy of the Program of Computer Graphics, Cornell University.) 

图9.26。左边是各向异性表面(金属拉丝)。注意反射的方向模糊。右边是显示类似表面的显微照片。注意细节的方向性。(照片由康奈尔大学计算机图形项目提供。)

Some surfaces have highly structured microgeometry, resulting in a variety of microscale normal distributions and surface appearances. Fabrics are a commonly encountered example—the unique appearance of velvet and satin is due to the structure of their microgeometry [78]. Fabric models will be discussed in Section 9.10.

一些表面具有高度结构化的微观几何，导致各种微尺度正态分布和表面外观。织物是一个常见的例子——天鹅绒和缎子的独特外观源于它们的微观几何结构[78]。织物模型将在9.10节中讨论。

Although multiple surface normals are the primary effect of microgeometry on reflectance, other effects can also be important. Shadowing refers to occlusion of the light source by microscale surface detail, as shown on the left side of Figure 9.27.Masking, where some facets hide others from the camera, is shown in the center of the figure.

虽然多重表面法线是微观几何对反射率的主要影响，但其他影响也可能很重要。阴影是指微尺度表面细节对光源的遮挡，如图9.27的左侧所示。图的中央显示了遮蔽，其中一些小平面对摄像机隐藏了其他小平面。

 Figure 9.27. Geometrical effects of microscale structure. On the left, the black dashed arrows indicate an area that is shadowed (occluded from the light) by other microgeometry. In the center, the red dashed arrows indicate an area that is masked (occluded from view) by other microgeometry. On the right, interreflection of light between the microscale structures is shown.

图9.27。微尺度结构的几何效应。在左侧，黑色虚线箭头表示被其他微观几何图形遮挡的区域。在中间，红色虚线箭头表示被其他微观几何图形遮挡的区域。在右边，显示了微尺度结构之间的光的相互反射。

If there is a correlation between the microgeometry height and the surface normal,then shadowing and masking can effectively change the normal distribution. For example, imagine a surface where the raised parts have been smoothed by weathering or other processes, and the lower parts remain rough. At glancing angles, the lower parts of the surface will tend to be shadowed or masked, resulting in an effectively smoother surface. See Figure 9.28.

如果在微几何高度和表面法线之间存在相关性，那么遮蔽和掩蔽可以有效地改变法线分布。例如，想象一个表面，其凸起部分由于风化或其他过程而变得平滑，而较低的部分仍然粗糙。在掠射角下，表面的较低部分往往会被阴影或遮蔽，导致表面实际上更平滑。参见图9.28。

Figure 9.28. The microgeometry shown has a strong correlation between height and surface normal,where the raised areas are smooth and lower areas are rough. In the top image, the surface is illuminated from an angle close to the macroscopic surface normal. At this angle, the rough pits are accessible to many of the incoming light rays, and so many rays are scattered in different directions. In the bottom image, the surface is illuminated from a glancing angle. Shadowing blocks most of the pits, so few light rays hit them, and most rays are reflected from the smooth parts of the surface. In this case, the apparent roughness depends strongly on the angle of illumination. 

图9.28。所示的微观几何形状在高度和表面法线之间具有很强的相关性，其中凸起区域是平滑的，而较低区域是粗糙的。在上面的图像中，从接近宏观表面法线的角度照亮表面。在这个角度，许多入射光线可以到达粗糙的凹坑，因此许多光线向不同的方向散射。在下图中，表面从掠射角度被照亮。阴影阻挡了大部分的凹坑，所以很少有光线照射到它们，大部分光线从表面的光滑部分反射。在这种情况下，表观粗糙度很大程度上取决于照明角度。

For all surface types, the visible size of the surface irregularities decreases as the incoming angle θi to the normal increases. At extremely glancing angles, this effect can decrease the viewed size of the irregularities to be shorter than the light’s wavelength,making them “disappear” as far as the light response is concerned. These two effects combine with the Fresnel effect to make surfaces appear highly reflective and mirrorlike as the viewing and lighting angles approach 90◦ [79, 1873, 1874].

对于所有表面类型，表面不规则性的可见尺寸随着法线入射角θi的增加而减小。在极小的掠射角下，这种效应可以将不规则体的可见尺寸减小到比光的波长更短，就光响应而言，使它们“消失”。这两种效果与菲涅尔效应相结合，使得当观察和照明角度接近90°时，表面看起来具有高反射性和镜面效果。

Confirm this for yourself. Roll a sheet of non-shiny paper into a long tube. Instead of looking through the hole, move your eye slightly higher, so you are looking down its length.Point your tube toward a brightly lit window or computer screen. With your view angle nearly parallel to the paper you will see a sharp reflection of the window or screen in the paper. The angle has to be extremely close to 90◦ to see the effect.

你自己确认一下。将一张没有光泽的纸卷成一个长管。不要透过洞看，将你的眼睛稍微向上移动，这样你就可以向下看它的长度。将您的试管指向灯光明亮的窗户或电脑屏幕。当你的视角几乎平行于纸张时，你会看到窗口或屏幕在纸张上的清晰倒影。角度必须非常接近90度♀才能看到效果。

Light that was occluded by microscale surface detail does not disappear. It is reflected, possibly onto other microgeometry. Light may undergo multiple bounces in this way before it reaches the eye. Such interreflections are shown on the right side of Figure 9.27. Since the light is being attenuated by the Fresnel reflectance at each bounce, interreflections tend to be subtle in dielectrics. In metals, multiple-bounce reflection is the source of any visible diffuse reflection, since metals lack subsurface scattering. Multiple-bounce reflections from colored metals are more deeply colored than the primary reflection, since they are the result of light interacting with the surface multiple times.

被微尺度表面细节遮挡的光不会消失。它可能被反射到其他微观几何上。光在到达眼睛之前可能会经历多次反射。这种相互反射如图9.27的右边所示。由于光在每次反射时会被菲涅耳反射衰减，所以在电介质中，相互反射往往很微妙。在金属中，多次反射是任何可见漫反射的来源，因为金属缺乏次表面散射。有色金属的多次反射比一次反射颜色更深，因为它们是光与表面多次相互作用的结果。

So far we have discussed the effects of microgeometry on specular reflectance, i.e.,the surface reflectance. In certain cases, microscale surface detail can affect subsurface reflectance as well. If the microgeometry irregularities are larger than the subsurface scattering distances, then shadowing and masking can cause a retroreflection effect,where light is preferentially reflected back toward the incoming direction. This effect occurs because shadowing and masking will occlude lit areas when the viewing and lighting directions differ greatly. See Figure 9.29. Retroreflection tends to give rough surfaces a flat appearance. See Figure 9.30.

到目前为止，我们已经讨论了微观几何对镜面反射率，即表面反射率的影响。在某些情况下，微尺度表面细节也会影响次表面反射率。如果微观几何不规则性大于表面下的散射距离，那么遮蔽和掩蔽会引起回射效应，其中光优先反射回入射方向。出现这种效果是因为当观察和照明方向相差很大时，阴影和遮罩会遮挡照亮的区域。参见图9.29。逆反射往往使粗糙的表面呈现出平坦的外观。参见图9.30。

Figure 9.29. Retroreflection due to microscale roughness. Both figures show a rough surface with low Fresnel reflectance and high scattering albedo, so subsurface reflectance is visually important. On the left, the viewing and lighting directions are similar. The parts of the microgeometry that are brightly lit are also the ones that are most visible, leading to a bright appearance. On the right, the viewing and lighting directions differ greatly. In this case, the brightly lit areas are occluded from view and the visible areas are shadowed, leading to a darker appearance. 

图9.29。微尺度粗糙度引起的回射。两幅图都显示了具有低菲涅耳反射率和高散射反照率的粗糙表面，因此次表面反射率在视觉上很重要。在左边，观察和照明方向是相似的。微几何中被明亮照亮的部分也是最可见的部分，从而导致明亮的外观。在右边，观察和照明方向差别很大。在这种情况下，明亮的区域被遮挡，可见区域被遮挡，导致外观变暗。

Figure 9.30. Photographs of two objects exhibiting non-Lambertian, retroreflective behavior due to microscale surface roughness. (Photograph on the right courtesy of Peter-Pike Sloan.) 

图9.30。由于微尺度表面粗糙度，两个物体表现出非朗伯逆反射行为的照片。(照片由彼得-派克·斯隆提供。)