广义相对论研讨(一)
文章目录
1 张量
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张量运算 C α β γ μ ν = A α β μ ⋅ B γ ν C^{{\mu}{\nu}}_{{\alpha}{\beta}{\gamma}}=A^{\mu}_{{\alpha}{\beta}} \cdot B^{\nu}_{{\gamma}} Cαβγμν=Aαβμ⋅Bγν , C = A μ B μ C=A^{\mu}B_{\mu} C=AμBμ , T μ ν = T ( μ ν ) + T [ μ ν ] T^{{\mu}{\nu}}=T^{({\mu}{\nu})}+T^{[{\mu}{\nu}]} Tμν=T(μν)+T[μν]
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平移—联络
A μ ( P → Q ) = A μ ( P ) + Γ μ ν λ ( P ) A λ ( P ) d x ν A μ ( P → Q ) = A μ ( P ) − Γ λ ν μ ( P ) A λ ( P ) d x ν A_{\mu}(P{\rightarrow}Q)=A_{\mu}(P)+{\Gamma}^{\lambda}_{{\mu}{\nu}}(P)A_{\lambda}(P){\rm{d}}x^{\nu}\\ A^{\mu}(P{\rightarrow}Q)=A^{\mu}(P)-{\Gamma}^{\mu}_{{\lambda}{\nu}}(P)A^{\lambda}(P){\rm{d}}x^{\nu} Aμ(P→Q)=Aμ(P)+Γμνλ(P)Aλ(P)dxνAμ(P→Q)=Aμ(P)−Γλνμ(P)Aλ(P)dxν -
微商
- 普通微商
∂ ν A μ ≡ A μ , ν : = lim Q → P A μ ( Q ) − A μ ( P ) Δ x ν {\partial}_{\nu}A_{\mu}{\equiv}A_{{\mu}\ ,\ {\nu}} := \lim_{Q{\rightarrow}P} \frac{A_{\mu}(Q)-A_{\mu}(P)}{{\Delta}x^{\nu}} ∂νAμ≡Aμ , ν:=Q→PlimΔxνAμ(Q)−Aμ(P)
- 协变微商
∇ ν A μ ≡ A μ ; ν : = lim Q → P A μ ( Q ) − A μ ( P → Q ) Δ x ν = A μ , ν − Γ μ ν λ A λ {\nabla}_{\nu}A_{\mu} {\equiv} A_{{\mu}\ ;\ {\nu}}:= \lim_{Q{\rightarrow}P} \frac{A_{\mu}(Q)-A_{\mu}(P{\rightarrow}Q)}{{\Delta}x^{\nu}} =A_{{\mu}\ ,\ {\nu}}-{\Gamma}^{\lambda}_{{\mu}{\nu}}A_{\lambda} ∇νAμ≡Aμ ; ν:=Q→PlimΔxνAμ(Q)−Aμ(P→Q)=Aμ , ν−ΓμνλAλ
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莱布尼兹律——协变矢量微商 → \rightarrow → 其他张量
- 逆变矢量的协变微商
( A μ B μ ) ; ν = ( A μ B μ ) , ν ⇒ A ; ν μ = A , ν μ + Γ λ ν μ A λ (A^{\mu}B_{\mu})_{;\ {\nu}}=(A^{\mu}B_{\mu})_{,\ {\nu}} \quad \Rightarrow \quad A^{\mu}_{;\ {\nu}}=A^{\mu}_{,\ {\nu}}+{\Gamma}^{\mu}_{{\lambda}{\nu}}A^{\lambda} (AμBμ); ν=(AμBμ), ν⇒A; νμ=A, νμ+ΓλνμAλ
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- 二阶张量
( A μ B ν ) ; λ = A ; ν μ B ν + A μ B ; ν μ ⇒ T ; λ μ ν = T , λ μ ν + Γ σ λ μ T σ ν + Γ σ λ ν T μ σ (A^{\mu}B^{\nu})_{;\ {\lambda}}=A^{\mu}_{;\ {\nu}}B^{\nu}+A^{\mu}B^{\mu}_{;\ {\nu}} \Rightarrow T^{{\mu}{\nu}}_{;\ {\lambda}}=T^{{\mu}{\nu}}_{,\ {\lambda}}+\Gamma^{\mu}_{{\sigma}{\lambda}}T^{{\sigma}{\nu}}+\Gamma^{\nu}_{{\sigma}{\lambda}}T^{{\mu}{\sigma}} (AμBν); λ=A; νμBν+AμB; νμ⇒T; λμν=T, λμν+ΓσλμTσν+ΓσλνTμσ
T μ ν ; λ = T μ ν , λ − Γ μ λ σ T σ ν − Γ ν λ σ T μ σ T ν ; λ μ = T ν , λ μ + Γ σ λ μ T ν σ − Γ ν λ σ T σ μ T_{{\mu}{\nu}\ ;\ {\lambda}} =T_{{\mu}{\nu}\ ,\ {\lambda}}-{\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\mu}{\lambda}}T_{{\sigma}{\nu}} -{\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\nu}{\lambda}}T_{{\mu}{\sigma}} \\ T^{{\mu}}_{{\nu}\ ;\ {\lambda}} =T^{{\mu}}_{{\nu}\ ,\ {\lambda}}+{\Gamma}^{\mu}_{{\sigma}{\lambda}}T^{{\sigma}}_{{\nu}} -{\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\nu}{\lambda}}T^{{\mu}}_{{\sigma}} Tμν ; λ=Tμν , λ−ΓμλσTσν−ΓνλσTμσTν ; λμ=Tν , λμ+ΓσλμTνσ−ΓνλσTσμ
Example
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{\delta}^{{\mu}}_{{\nu}\ ;\ {\lambda}} ={\delta}^{{\mu}}_{{\nu}\ ,\ {\lambda}}+{\Gamma}^{\mu}_{{\sigma}{\lambda}}{\delta}^{{\sigma}}_{{\nu}} -{\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\nu}{\lambda}}{\delta}^{{\mu}}_{{\sigma}}={\Gamma}^{\mu}_{{\nu}{\lambda}}-{\Gamma}^{\mu}_{{\nu}{\lambda}}=0
δν ; λμ=δν , λμ+Γσλμδνσ−Γνλσδσμ=Γνλμ−Γνλμ=0
2 曲率与挠率
2.1 引出
∂ μ ∂ ν = ∂ ν ∂ μ b u t ∇ μ ∇ ν = ∇ ν ∇ μ ? {\partial}_{\mu}{\partial}_{\nu}={\partial}_{\nu}{\partial}_{\mu} \quad but \quad{\nabla}_{\mu}{\nabla}_{\nu}={\nabla}_{\nu}{\nabla}_{\mu}\ ? ∂μ∂ν=∂ν∂μbut∇μ∇ν=∇ν∇μ ?
对一个协变矢量场
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Aλ(x) 求两次协变微商
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\begin{aligned} A_{{\lambda};{\mu};{\nu}}&=A_{{\lambda};{\mu},{\nu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}}A_{{\rho};{\mu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\mu}{\nu}}A_{{\lambda};{\rho}} \\ & = (A_{{\lambda},{\mu},{\nu}}-{\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}}A_{\rho})_{,{\nu}} -{\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}}(A_{{\rho},{\mu}}-{\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\rho}{\mu}}A_{\sigma}) - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\mu}{\nu}}A_{{\lambda};{\rho}} \\ & =A_{{\lambda},{\mu},{\nu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu},{\nu}}A_{\rho} -{\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}}A_{{\rho},{\nu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}}A_{{\rho},{\mu}} + {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}} {\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\rho}{\mu}} A_{\sigma} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\mu}{\nu}}A_{{\lambda};{\rho}} \end{aligned}
Aλ;μ;ν=Aλ;μ,ν−ΓλνρAρ;μ−ΓμνρAλ;ρ=(Aλ,μ,ν−ΓλμρAρ),ν−Γλνρ(Aρ,μ−ΓρμσAσ)−ΓμνρAλ;ρ=Aλ,μ,ν−Γλμ,νρAρ−ΓλμρAρ,ν−ΓλνρAρ,μ+ΓλνρΓρμσAσ−ΓμνρAλ;ρ
交换微分次序
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\begin{aligned} A_{{\lambda};{\nu};{\mu}} &=A_{{\lambda};{\nu},{\mu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}}A_{{\rho};{\nu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\nu}{\mu}}A_{{\lambda};{\rho}} \\ &= (A_{{\lambda},{\nu},{\mu}}-{\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}}A_{\rho})_{,{\mu}} -{\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}}(A_{{\rho},{\nu}}-{\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\rho}{\nu}}A_{\sigma}) - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\nu}{\mu}}A_{{\lambda};{\rho}} \\ & =A_{{\lambda},{\nu},{\mu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu},{\mu}}A_{\rho} -{\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}}A_{{\rho},{\mu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}}A_{{\rho},{\nu}} + {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}} {\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\rho}{\nu}} A_{\sigma} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\nu}{\mu}}A_{{\lambda};{\rho}} \end{aligned}
Aλ;ν;μ=Aλ;ν,μ−ΓλμρAρ;ν−ΓνμρAλ;ρ=(Aλ,ν,μ−ΓλνρAρ),μ−Γλμρ(Aρ,ν−ΓρνσAσ)−ΓνμρAλ;ρ=Aλ,ν,μ−Γλν,μρAρ−ΓλνρAρ,μ−ΓλμρAρ,ν+ΓλμρΓρνσAσ−ΓνμρAλ;ρ
两式相减
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\begin{aligned} A_{{\lambda};{\mu};{\nu}}-A_{{\lambda};{\nu};{\mu}} &=({\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu},{\mu}}-{\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu},{\nu}})A_{\rho} + ({\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}} {\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\rho}{\mu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}} {\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\rho}{\nu}})A_{\sigma} \\ & +({\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\nu}{\mu}}-{\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\mu}}{\nu})A_{{\lambda};{\rho}} \\ & =({\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu},{\mu}}-{\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu},{\nu}} + {\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\lambda}{\nu}} {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\sigma}{\mu}} - {\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\lambda}{\mu}} {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\sigma}{\nu}})A_{\rho} - ({\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\mu}{\nu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\nu}{\mu}})A_{{\lambda};{\rho}} \\ & =R^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}}A_{\rho} --2{\Gamma}^{\rho}_ {\left[{\mu}{\nu}\right]}A_{{\lambda};{\rho}} \end{aligned}
Aλ;μ;ν−Aλ;ν;μ=(Γλν,μρ−Γλμ,νρ)Aρ+(ΓλνρΓρμσ−ΓλμρΓρνσ)Aσ+(Γνμρ−Γμρν)Aλ;ρ=(Γλν,μρ−Γλμ,νρ+ΓλνσΓσμρ−ΓλμσΓσνρ)Aρ−(Γμνρ−Γνμρ)Aλ;ρ=RλμνρAρ−−2Γ[μν]ρAλ;ρ
曲率张量
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R^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}} {\equiv} {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}\ ,\ {\mu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}\ ,\ {\nu}} + {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\sigma}{\mu}} {\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\lambda}{\nu}} -{\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\sigma}{\nu}} {\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\lambda}{\mu}} \tag 1
Rλμνρ≡Γλν , μρ−Γλμ , νρ+ΓσμρΓλνσ−ΓσνρΓλμσ(1)
挠率张量
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{\Gamma}^{\rho}_{\left[{\mu}{\nu}\right]} {\equiv} \frac{1}{2}({\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\mu}{\nu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\nu}{\mu}} \tag 2
Γ[μν]ρ≡21(Γμνρ−Γνμρ(2)
曲率张量性质
- (3,4)指标对称
R λ μ ν ρ = − R λ ν μ ρ R^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}}=-R^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}{\mu}} Rλμνρ=−Rλνμρ
- (1,2)指标缩并
A μ ν = R ρ μ ν ρ A_{{\mu}{\nu}}=R^{\rho}_{{\rho}{\mu}{\nu}} Aμν=Rρμνρ
- (1,3)指标缩并
R μ ν = R μ ρ ν ρ = Γ μ ν , ρ ρ − Γ μ ρ , ν ρ + Γ σ ρ ρ Γ μ ν σ − Γ σ ν ρ Γ μ ρ σ R_{{\mu}{\nu}}=R^{\rho}_{{\mu}{\rho}{\nu}}={\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\mu}{\nu}\ ,\ {\rho}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\mu}{\rho}\ ,\ {\nu}} + {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\sigma}{\rho}} {\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\mu}{\nu}} -{\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\sigma}{\nu}} {\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\mu}{\rho}} Rμν=Rμρνρ=Γμν , ρρ−Γμρ , νρ+ΓσρρΓμνσ−ΓσνρΓμρσ
- (1,4)指标——不独立
R μ ν ρ ρ = Γ μ ρ , ν ρ − Γ μ ν , ρ ρ + Γ σ ν ρ Γ μ ρ σ − Γ σ ρ ρ Γ μ ν σ = − R μ ρ ν ρ R^{\rho}_{{\mu}{\nu}{\rho}}={\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\mu}{\rho}\ ,\ {\nu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\mu}{\nu}\ ,\ {\rho}} + {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\sigma}{\nu}} {\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\mu}{\rho}} -{\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\sigma}{\rho}} {\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\mu}{\nu}}=-R^{\rho}_{{\mu}{\rho}{\nu}} Rμνρρ=Γμρ , νρ−Γμν , ρρ+ΓσνρΓμρσ−ΓσρρΓμνσ=−Rμρνρ
2.2 几何意义
挠率的几何意义
两段路径通过平移是否能形成闭合路径?
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\overrightarrow{QP}:{\rm{d}}x^{\mu}-\Gamma^{\mu}_{{\sigma}{\nu}}{\rm{d}}x^{\sigma} {\delta}x^{\nu} \\ \overrightarrow{Q'P'}:{\delta}x^{\mu}-\Gamma^{\mu}_{{\sigma}{\nu}}{\delta}x^{\sigma}{\rm{d}}x^{\nu}
QP:dxμ−ΓσνμdxσδxνQ′P′:δxμ−Γσνμδxσdxν
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\overrightarrow{OQ}+\overrightarrow{QP}-(\overrightarrow{OQ'}+\overrightarrow{Q'P'}): \\{\delta}x^{\mu}+{\rm{d}}x^{\mu}-\Gamma^{\mu}_{{\sigma}{\nu}}{\rm{d}}x^{\sigma} {\delta}x^{\nu}-\left( {\rm{d}}x^{\mu}+{\delta}x^{\mu}-\Gamma^{\mu}_{{\sigma}{\nu}}{\delta}x^{\sigma}{\rm{d}}x^{\nu} \right) \\ =(\Gamma^{\mu}_{{\nu}{\sigma}}-\Gamma^{\mu}_{{\sigma}{\nu}}){\delta}x^{\nu}{\rm{d}}x^{\sigma}=2\Gamma^{\mu}_{[{\nu}{\sigma}]}{\delta}x^{\nu}{\rm{d}}x^{\sigma}
OQ+QP−(OQ′+Q′P′):δxμ+dxμ−Γσνμdxσδxν−(dxμ+δxμ−Γσνμδxσdxν)=(Γνσμ−Γσνμ)δxνdxσ=2Γ[νσ]μδxνdxσ
若挠率为零,上述平移操作才能构造闭合路径. 挠率不为零,称为扭曲空间.
曲率的几何意义
考虑挠率为零时矢量沿闭合路径平移一周的效果:
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A^{\mu}(O) \quad \xrightarrow{{\delta}x^{\mu}} \quad A^{\mu}(Q) \quad \xrightarrow{{\rm{d}}x^{\mu}-\Gamma^{\mu}_{{\sigma}{\nu}}{\rm{d}}x^{\sigma} {\delta}x^{\nu}} \quad A^{\mu}(P) \quad \\ \xrightarrow{-({\delta}x^{\mu}-\Gamma^{\mu}_{{\sigma}{\nu}}{\delta}x^{\sigma}{\rm{d}}x^{\nu})} \quad A^{\mu}(Q') \quad \xrightarrow{-dx^{\mu}} \quad A'^{\mu}(O)
Aμ(O)δxμAμ(Q)dxμ−ΓσνμdxσδxνAμ(P)−(δxμ−Γσνμδxσdxν)Aμ(Q′)−dxμA′μ(O)
A ′ μ ( O ) − A μ ( O ) = A μ ( O → Q → P → Q ′ → O ) − A μ ( O ) = A μ ( O → Q → P ) − A μ ( O → Q ′ → P ) = − R λ μ ν ρ A λ δ x μ d x ν A'^{\mu}(O)-A^{\mu}(O)=A^{\mu}(O{\rightarrow}Q{\rightarrow}P{\rightarrow}Q'{\rightarrow}O)-A^{\mu}(O) \\ =A^{\mu}(O{\rightarrow}Q{\rightarrow}P)-A^{\mu}(O{\rightarrow}Q'{\rightarrow}P)=-R^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}}A^{\lambda}{\delta}x^{\mu}{\rm{d}}x^{\nu} A′μ(O)−Aμ(O)=Aμ(O→Q→P→Q′→O)−Aμ(O)=Aμ(O→Q→P)−Aμ(O→Q′→P)=−RλμνρAλδxμdxν
若曲率不为零,矢量沿闭合路径平移一周有个附加“转动”,我们称为弯曲空间.
空间平直性
平直空间的挠率和曲率都为零,平直空间中矢量经闭合路径平移才没有附加的“移动”和“转动”,这就回到了我们熟知的空间——其中的矢量可以随意平移.
3 度规张量
在以上讨论的仿射空间中引入度量 ⇒ \Rightarrow ⇒ 黎曼空间,引入度量就要定义度规和距离.
3.1 度规与距离
d s 2 = g μ ν d x μ d x ν (4) {\rm{d}}s^2=g_{{\mu}{\nu}}{\rm{d}}x^{\mu}{\rm{d}}x^{\nu} \tag 4 ds2=gμνdxμdxν(4)
这个二次型通过度规定义了距离. 左侧是标量,不难看出度规是个二阶协变张量,而且是对称的. 稍加推广,便可得到内积的定义(通过度规),
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\vec{A}\cdot\vec{B}=(A^{\mu}\vec{e}_{\mu})\cdot(B^{\nu}\vec{e}_{\nu})=(\vec{e}_{\mu} \cdot \vec{e}_{\nu})A^{\mu}B^{\nu} {\equiv} g_{{\mu}{\nu}}A^{\mu}B^{\nu}. \tag 5
A⋅B=(Aμeμ)⋅(Bνeν)=(eμ⋅eν)AμBν≡gμνAμBν.(5)
Example
- 欧氏空间 R 3 \R^3 R3 , 采用球坐标系
d s 2 = d r 2 + r 2 d θ 2 + r 2 sin 2 θ d φ 2 {\rm{d}}s^2={\rm{d}}r^2+r^2{\rm{d}}{\theta}^2+r^2\sin^2{\theta}{\rm{d}}{\varphi}^2 ds2=dr2+r2dθ2+r2sin2θdφ2
( g i j ) = [ 1 0 0 0 r 2 0 0 0 r 2 sin 2 θ ] , i , j = 1 , 2 , 3 (g_{ij})=\left[ \begin{matrix} 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & r^2 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & r^2\sin^2{\theta} \end{matrix} \right] ,\quad i,j=1,2,3 (gij)=⎣⎡1000r2000r2sin2θ⎦⎤,i,j=1,2,3
- 四维闵氏空间
d s 2 = − ( c d t ) 2 + d x 2 + d y 2 + d z 2 = − ( d x 0 ) 2 + ∑ i = 1 , 2 , 3 ( d x i ) 2 {\rm{d}}s^2=-(c{\rm{d}}t)^2+{\rm{d}}x^2+{\rm{d}}y^2+{\rm{d}}z^2=-({\rm{d}}x^0)^2+\sum_{i=1,2,3} ({\rm{d}}x^i)^2 ds2=−(cdt)2+dx2+dy2+dz2=−(dx0)2+i=1,2,3∑(dxi)2
( g μ ν ) = ( η μ ν ) ≡ [ − 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 ] , μ , ν = 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 (g_{{\mu}{\nu}})=({\eta}_{{\mu}{\nu}}) \equiv \left[ \begin{matrix} -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{matrix} \right], \quad {\mu},{\nu}=0,1,2,3 (gμν)=(ημν)≡⎣⎢⎢⎡−1000010000100001⎦⎥⎥⎤,μ,ν=0,1,2,3
3.2 度规的正则形式
当黎曼空间的度规张量分量是常数,且
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g_{{\mu}{\nu}}= \left\{ \begin{aligned} &\pm1, &\mu=\nu \\ &0, &\mu\ {\neq}\ \nu \end{aligned} \right.
gμν={±1,0,μ=νμ = ν
把这种形式的度规张量称为正则形式,把这组坐标系称为正交归一基或幺正基. 虽然全空间的度规张量分量很可能随坐标变化,但我们总可以在一点邻域把度规张量化为正则形式,这是因为我们可以把黎曼时空看作局域平直的.
3.3 时空与号差
度规的正则形式中,我们把对角元都是正的称为正定度规,对角元有正有负的称为不定度规. 例如在四维闵氏时空时间坐标对应的度规分量为 − 1 -1 −1 ,我们可以认为对角元的正负分别对应区分“空间”和“时间”概念. 可以区分“空间”和“时间”概念的黎曼空间,称为黎曼时空. 一个简单的例子是,闵氏空间也可以称为闵氏时空. 我们定义号差是正则形式下度规分量对角元之和(也可以用度规的迹来表示) ,用于分类定义了不同度规的空间. 我们今后感兴趣的正是这种具有不定度规,而且号差为 + 2 +2 +2 的黎曼时空.
3.4 升降指标
我们知道矢量内积可以由缩并来得到,与式(9)比较可知协变度规起着降指标的作用:
g
μ
ν
A
μ
=
A
ν
,
g
μ
ν
T
ν
ρ
=
T
μ
ρ
⋯
g_{{\mu}\nu}A^{\mu}=A_{\nu}\ , \quad g_{\mu\nu}T^{\nu\rho}=T^{\rho}_{\mu}\ \cdots
gμνAμ=Aν ,gμνTνρ=Tμρ ⋯
同样,应该要求逆变度规张量可以升指标:
A
μ
≡
g
μ
ν
A
ν
,
T
μ
ν
≡
g
μ
ρ
T
ρ
ν
⋯
A^{\mu} {\equiv} g^{{\mu}{\nu}}A_{\nu}\ , \quad T^{{\mu}{\nu}} {\equiv} g^{{\mu}{\rho}}T_{\rho}^{\nu}\ \cdots
Aμ≡gμνAν ,Tμν≡gμρTρν ⋯
代入前式可得
A
μ
=
g
μ
ν
A
ν
=
g
μ
ν
(
g
ν
ρ
A
ρ
)
=
δ
ρ
μ
A
μ
⇒
g
μ
ν
g
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ρ
=
g
ρ
μ
=
δ
ρ
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A^{\mu}=g^{\mu\nu}A_{\nu}=g^{\mu\nu}(g_{\nu\rho}A^{\rho})={\delta}^{\mu}_{\rho}A^{\mu} \\ \Rightarrow \quad g^{\mu\nu}g_{\nu\rho}=g^{\mu}_{\rho}={\delta}^{\mu}_{\rho} \qquad
Aμ=gμνAν=gμν(gνρAρ)=δρμAμ⇒gμνgνρ=gρμ=δρμ
这表明,协变度规张量的逆度规就是我们所需要的逆变度规张量,而且混合指标的度规张量就是Kronecker张量
δ
ν
μ
{\delta}^{\mu}_{\nu}
δνμ . 从度规等于基矢量内积的角度来看,这意味着切空间的基矢量和它对偶空间的基矢量是正交归一的,尽管这两个空间各自的基矢量一般并不正交归一.
4 克氏符
期待黎曼空间能保持欧式空间的下面两点性质,并以此得出度规与联络的关系.
(1) 无挠 Γ μ ν ρ = Γ ν μ ρ : ∇ μ ∇ ν ϕ = ∇ ν ∇ μ ϕ {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\mu}{\nu}} = {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\nu}{\mu}} \ : {\nabla}_{\mu}{\nabla}_{\nu}{\phi}={\nabla}_{\nu}{\nabla}_{\mu}{\phi} Γμνρ=Γνμρ :∇μ∇νϕ=∇ν∇μϕ .
(2) 矢量长度平移不变,或者 ∇ σ g μ ν = 0 {\nabla}_{\sigma}g_{\mu\nu}=0 ∇σgμν=0,称为导数算符与度规适配.
(1) 对标量两次协变微商并换序
∇
μ
∇
ν
ϕ
=
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μ
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∂
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)
=
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{\nabla}_{\mu}{\nabla}_{\nu}{\phi}={\nabla}_{\mu}(\partial_{\nu}\phi)=\partial_{\mu}\partial_{\nu}{\phi}-\Gamma^{\sigma}_{\mu\nu}\partial_{\sigma}\phi \\ {\nabla}_{\nu}{\nabla}_{\mu}{\phi}={\nabla}_{\nu}(\partial_{\mu}\phi)=\partial_{\nu}\partial_{\mu}{\phi}-\Gamma^{\sigma}_{\nu\mu}\partial_{\sigma}\phi
∇μ∇νϕ=∇μ(∂νϕ)=∂μ∂νϕ−Γμνσ∂σϕ∇ν∇μϕ=∇ν(∂μϕ)=∂ν∂μϕ−Γνμσ∂σϕ
无挠空间中协变导数才具有可交换的性质,以后我们都是在无挠的黎曼空间讨论.
(2) 注意
g
ρ
;
ν
μ
=
δ
ρ
;
ν
μ
=
0
g^{\mu}_{\rho\ ;\nu}={\delta}^{\mu}_{\rho\ ;\nu}=0
gρ ;νμ=δρ ;νμ=0 ,那么度规的协变导数呢?平直时空,选择笛卡尔坐标系显然
g
μ
ρ
;
ν
=
0
g_{\mu\rho\ ;\nu}=0
gμρ ;ν=0 ,在黎曼空间仍要求这一点(与矢量长度平移不变性等价) ,则有
g
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ν
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=
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−
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−
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=
0
g_{{\mu}{\nu}\ ;\ {\lambda}}=g_{{\mu}{\nu}\ ,\ {\lambda}}-g_{{\alpha}{\nu}}{\Gamma}^{\alpha}_{{\mu}{\lambda}}-g_{{\mu}{\alpha}}{\Gamma}^{\alpha}_{{\nu}{\lambda}}=0
gμν ; λ=gμν , λ−gανΓμλα−gμαΓνλα=0
轮换指标
(
μ
,
ν
,
λ
)
→
(
ν
,
λ
,
μ
)
(\mu,\nu,\lambda)\rightarrow(\nu,\lambda,\mu)
(μ,ν,λ)→(ν,λ,μ)
g
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−
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Γ
ν
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=
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g_{{\nu}{\lambda},{\mu}}-g_{{\alpha}{\lambda}}{\Gamma}^{\alpha}_{{\nu}{\mu}}-g_{{\nu}{\alpha}}{\Gamma}^{\alpha}_{{\lambda}{\mu}}=0 \\ g_{{\lambda}{\mu},{\nu}}-g_{{\alpha}{\mu}}{\Gamma}^{\alpha}_{{\lambda}{\nu}}-g_{{\lambda}{\alpha}}{\Gamma}^{\alpha}_{{\mu}{\nu}}=0
gνλ,μ−gαλΓνμα−gναΓλμα=0gλμ,ν−gαμΓλνα−gλαΓμνα=0
后两式相加减去第一式,并注意到无挠空间中联络以及度规的对称性,有
Γ
λ
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ν
≡
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{\Gamma}_{{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}} {\equiv} g_{{\lambda}{\alpha}}{\Gamma}^{\alpha}_{{\mu}{\nu}}= \frac{1}{2}(g_{{\mu}{\nu},{\lambda}}+g_{{\nu}{\lambda},{\mu}}-g_{{\lambda}{\mu},{\nu}})
Γλμν≡gλαΓμνα=21(gμν,λ+gνλ,μ−gλμ,ν)
通常定义的克氏符指标为 (1,2) 型
Γ
μ
ν
α
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2
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λ
(
g
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ν
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−
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,
ν
)
(6)
{\Gamma}^{\alpha}_{{\mu}{\nu}}=\frac{1}{2} g^{{\alpha}{\lambda}} (g_{{\mu}{\nu},{\lambda}}+g_{{\nu}{\lambda},{\mu}}-g_{{\lambda}{\mu},{\nu}}) \tag 6
Γμνα=21gαλ(gμν,λ+gνλ,μ−gλμ,ν)(6)
此式是在特殊的空间和限制条件下得出的联络与度规的关系式,准确的说此式定义了无挠黎曼空间中,保持矢量长度平移不变性条件下的联络 — 克氏符. 广义相对论所用的时空就是无挠的黎曼时空,因此以后多数时间提到联络都是指克氏符.
5 黎曼空间的曲率张量
我们上面对黎曼空间作了两点要求,这其实就是Einstein广义相对论所用的时空.那么此时黎曼曲率张量还具有什么性质?定义 (0,4) 型曲率张量
R
ρ
λ
μ
ν
≡
g
ρ
σ
R
λ
μ
ν
σ
(7)
R_{{\rho}{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}} {\equiv} g_{{\rho}{\sigma}}R^{\sigma}_{{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}} \tag 7
Rρλμν≡gρσRλμνσ(7)
- 对称性
R ρ λ μ ν = − R ρ λ ν μ R ρ λ μ ν = R μ ν ρ λ R ρ λ μ ν = − R λ ρ μ ν R_{{\rho}{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}}=-R_{{\rho}{\lambda}{\nu}{\mu}} \\ \\R_{{\rho}{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}}=R_{{\mu}{\nu}{\rho} {\lambda}}\\ \\R_{{\rho}{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}}=-R_{{\lambda}{\rho}{\mu}{\nu}} Rρλμν=−RρλνμRρλμν=RμνρλRρλμν=−Rλρμν
第二式把黎曼曲率张量展开可证,结合前两式可得第三式.
- Ricci 恒等式
R ρ λ μ ν + R ρ μ ν λ + R ρ ν λ μ = 0 R_{{\rho}{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}}+R_{{\rho}{\mu}{\nu}{\lambda}}+R_{{\rho}{\nu}{\lambda}{\mu}}=0 Rρλμν+Rρμνλ+Rρνλμ=0
- Ricci 张量 — 对称张量
反对称性导致缩并
A
μ
ν
=
R
ρ
μ
ν
ρ
=
g
ρ
λ
R
λ
ρ
μ
ν
=
−
g
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ρ
R
ρ
λ
μ
ν
=
−
R
ρ
μ
ν
ρ
=
0
A_{{\mu}{\nu}}=R^{\rho}_{{\rho}{\mu}{\nu}} =g^{{\rho}{\lambda}}R_{{\lambda}{\rho}{\mu}{\nu}}=-g^{{\lambda}{\rho}}R_{{\rho}{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}}=-R^{\rho}_{{\rho}{\mu}{\nu}}=0
Aμν=Rρμνρ=gρλRλρμν=−gλρRρλμν=−Rρμνρ=0
因此只剩下一种独立的缩并方式 — 给出里奇 (Ricci) 张量的定义
R
μ
ν
=
R
μ
ρ
ν
ρ
(8)
R_{{\mu}{\nu}}=R^{\rho}_{{\mu}{\rho}{\nu}} \tag 8
Rμν=Rμρνρ(8)
- 曲率标量
R = g μ ν R μ ν (9) R=g^{{\mu}{\nu}}R_{{\mu}{\nu}} \tag 9 R=gμνRμν(9)
- Einstein 张量 — 2 阶反对称
G μ ν = R μ ν − 1 2 R g μ ν (10) G_{{\mu}{\nu}}=R_{{\mu}{\nu}}-\frac{1}{2}Rg_{{\mu}{\nu}} \tag{10} Gμν=Rμν−21Rgμν(10)
n n n 维黎曼空间的张量 | 非零独立分量个数 N |
---|---|
曲率张量 R μ ν τ λ R_{{\mu}{\nu}{\tau}{\lambda}} Rμντλ | n 2 ( n 2 − 1 ) 2 \dfrac{n^2(n^2-1)}{2} 2n2(n2−1) |
里奇张量 R μ ν R_{{\mu}{\nu}} Rμν | n ( n + 1 ) 2 \dfrac{n(n+1)}{2} 2n(n+1) |
爱因斯坦张量 G μ ν G_{{\mu}{\nu}} Gμν | n ( n + 1 ) 2 \dfrac{n(n+1)}{2} 2n(n+1) |
- 毕安基 (Bianchi) 恒等式
R λ μ ν ; σ ρ + R λ ν σ ; μ ρ + R λ σ μ ; ν ρ = 0 (11) R^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}\ ;\ {\sigma}}+R^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}{\sigma}\ ;\ {\mu}}+R^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\sigma}{\mu}\ ;\ {\nu}}=0 \tag{11} Rλμν ; σρ+Rλνσ ; μρ+Rλσμ ; νρ=0(11)
由于张量关系式不依赖坐标系,为简便选择联络分量都为零的坐标系证明。由(11)式可得
R
λ
μ
ν
;
σ
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=
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Γ
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ν
,
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ρ
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λ
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;
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,
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,
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,
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,
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,
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ρ
\begin{aligned} R^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}\ ;\ {\sigma}} &=({\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}\ ,\ {\mu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}\ ,\ {\nu}})_{\ ;\ {\sigma}} + ({\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\sigma}{\mu}} {\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\lambda}{\nu}} -{\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\sigma}{\nu}}{\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{{\lambda}{\mu}})_{\ ;\ {\sigma}} \\ &=({\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}\ ,\ {\mu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}\ ,\ {\nu}})_{\ ,\ {\sigma}} \\ &={\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}\ ,\ {\mu}\ ,\ {\sigma}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}\ ,\ {\nu}\ ,\ {\sigma}} \end{aligned}
Rλμν ; σρ=(Γλν , μρ−Γλμ , νρ) ; σ+(ΓσμρΓλνσ−ΓσνρΓλμσ) ; σ=(Γλν , μρ−Γλμ , νρ) , σ=Γλν , μ , σρ−Γλμ , ν , σρ
同理可得
R
λ
ν
σ
;
μ
ρ
=
Γ
λ
σ
,
ν
,
μ
ρ
−
Γ
λ
ν
,
σ
,
μ
ρ
R
λ
σ
μ
;
ν
ρ
=
Γ
λ
μ
,
σ
,
ν
ρ
−
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λ
σ
,
μ
,
ν
ρ
R^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}{\sigma}\ ;\ {\mu}}={\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\sigma}\ ,\ {\nu}\ ,\ {\mu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\nu}\ ,\ {\sigma}\ ,\ {\mu}}\\ \\ R^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\sigma}{\mu}\ ;\ {\nu}}={\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}\ ,\ {\sigma}\ ,\ {\nu}} - {\Gamma}^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\sigma}\ ,\ {\mu}\ ,\ {\nu}}
Rλνσ ; μρ=Γλσ , ν , μρ−Γλν , σ , μρRλσμ ; νρ=Γλμ , σ , νρ−Γλσ , μ , νρ
三式相加,注意普通微商的可交换性,
P
P
P 点的任意性可推出等式在任一点成立.
对毕安基恒等式缩并
ρ
\rho
ρ 和
σ
\sigma
σ 指标就有
R
λ
μ
ν
;
σ
σ
−
R
λ
ν
;
μ
+
R
λ
μ
;
ν
R^{\sigma}_{{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}\ ;\ {\sigma}}-R_{{\lambda}{\nu}\ ;\mu }+R_{{\lambda}{\mu}\ ;\ {\nu}}
Rλμν ; σσ−Rλν ;μ+Rλμ ; ν
对上式左乘
g
ν
λ
g^{{\nu}{\lambda}}
gνλ ,并注意到
g
;
α
ν
λ
=
0
g^{{\nu}{\lambda}}_{\ ;\alpha}=0
g ;ανλ=0
R
μ
;
σ
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−
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;
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+
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;
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ν
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;
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⇒
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;
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\begin{aligned} &R^{\sigma}_{{\mu}\ ;\ {\sigma}}-R_{\ ;\ \mu }+R^{\nu}_{{\mu}\ ;\ {\nu}}=0 \\ &R^{\nu}_{{\mu}\ ;\ {\nu}} - \frac{1}{2}R_{\ ;\ \mu }=0 \\ &R^{\nu}_{{\mu}\ ;\ {\nu}} - \frac{1}{2} {\delta}^{\nu}_{\mu} R_{\ ;\ \nu }=0 \\ \Rightarrow &\left(R^{\nu}_{{\mu}} - \frac{1}{2} g^{\nu}_{\mu} R \right)_{\ ;\ \nu }=0 \end{aligned}
⇒Rμ ; σσ−R ; μ+Rμ ; νν=0Rμ ; νν−21R ; μ=0Rμ ; νν−21δμνR ; ν=0(Rμν−21gμνR) ; ν=0
其他张量形式为
(
R
μ
ν
−
1
2
g
μ
ν
R
)
;
ν
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(
R
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\begin{aligned} &\left(R_{{\mu}{\nu}} - \frac{1}{2} g_{{\mu}{\nu}} R \right)^{\ ;\ \nu }=0 \\ &\left(R^{{\mu}{\nu}} - \frac{1}{2} g^{{\mu}{\nu}} R \right)_{\ ;\ \nu }=0 \end{aligned}
(Rμν−21gμνR) ; ν=0(Rμν−21gμνR) ; ν=0
这表明爱因斯坦张量的协变散度为零
G
μ
;
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ν
=
G
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ν
;
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=
G
;
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0
(12)
G^{\nu}_{\mu \ ;\ \nu}=G_{{\mu}{\nu}}^{\ ;\ {\nu}}=G^{{\mu}{\nu}}_{\ ;\ {\nu}}=0 \tag{12}
Gμ ; νν=Gμν ; ν=G ; νμν=0(12)
6 测地线和短程线
6.1 测地线与仿射参量
测地线定义
仿照平直空间中直线的自平行性质定义仿射空间中测地线的参数方程: x μ = x μ ( λ ) x^{\mu}=x^{\mu}(\lambda) xμ=xμ(λ) , 任一点切矢定义为 A μ = d x μ ( λ ) d λ A^{\mu}=\frac{dx^{\mu}(\lambda)}{d{\lambda}} Aμ=dλdxμ(λ)
“平行”要求P, Q (相隔无穷小位移
d
x
μ
dx^{\mu}
dxμ) 两点的切矢成比例
A
μ
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A
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A^{\mu}(Q)=F({\lambda}+d{\lambda})A^{\mu}(P{\rightarrow}Q)
Aμ(Q)=F(λ+dλ)Aμ(P→Q) , 将
F
F
F 在P点展开,保留至一阶,就有测地线满足的方程
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A^{\mu}(Q)=[1+f(\lambda)d{\lambda}]A^{\mu}(P{\rightarrow}Q)
Aμ(Q)=[1+f(λ)dλ]Aμ(P→Q) , 代入
(
2
)
(2)
(2)式与切矢定义式即得
d
x
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\left.\frac{{\rm{d}}x^{\mu}}{{\rm{d}}{\lambda}} \right|_Q-\left.\frac{{\rm{d}}x^{\mu}}{{\rm{d}}{\lambda}} \right|_P=f(\lambda)\left.\frac{{\rm{d}}x^{\mu}}{{\rm{d}}{\lambda}} \right|_P- {\Gamma}^{\mu}_{{\alpha}{\beta}} \left.\frac{{\rm{d}}x^{\beta}}{{\rm{d}}{\lambda}} \right|_P {\rm{d}}x^{\alpha}+ \circ(({\rm{d}}x^{\mu})^2)
dλdxμ∣∣∣∣Q−dλdxμ∣∣∣∣P=f(λ)dλdxμ∣∣∣∣P−Γαβμdλdxβ∣∣∣∣Pdxα+∘((dxμ)2)
略去二阶小量得到
d
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d
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(13)
\frac{{\rm{d}}^2x^{\mu}}{{\rm{d}}{\lambda}^2} + {\Gamma}^{\mu}_{{\alpha}{\beta}} \frac{{\rm{d}}x^{\alpha}}{{\rm{d}}{\lambda}} \frac{{\rm{d}}x^{\beta}}{{\rm{d}}{\lambda}}=f({\lambda}) \frac{{\rm{d}}x^{\mu}}{{\rm{d}}{\lambda}} \tag{13}
dλ2d2xμ+Γαβμdλdxαdλdxβ=f(λ)dλdxμ(13)
仿射参量
参量变换
λ
=
λ
(
σ
)
\lambda=\lambda(\sigma)
λ=λ(σ) , 若满足
d
2
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d
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=
f
(
λ
)
d
σ
d
λ
\frac{{\rm{d}}^2{\sigma}}{{\rm{d}}{\lambda}^2}=f(\lambda) \frac{{\rm{d}}{\sigma}}{{\rm{d}}{\lambda}}
dλ2d2σ=f(λ)dλdσ , 则
σ
\sigma
σ 称为仿射参量,且测地线方程可简化为
d
2
x
μ
d
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2
+
Γ
α
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d
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d
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(14)
\frac{{\rm{d}}^2x^{\mu}}{{\rm{d}}{\sigma}^2} + {\Gamma}^{\mu}_{{\alpha}{\beta}} \frac{{\rm{d}}x^{\alpha}}{{\rm{d}}{\sigma}} \frac{{\rm{d}}x^{\beta}}{{\rm{d}}{\sigma}}=0 \tag{14}
dσ2d2xμ+Γαβμdσdxαdσdxβ=0(14)
一般情况可把长度
s
s
s 作为仿射参量 (光线例外,其
s
=
0
s=0
s=0 ) ,便得到所谓短程线方程
d
2
x
μ
d
s
2
+
Γ
α
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μ
d
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α
d
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d
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d
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(15)
\frac{{\rm{d}}^2x^{\mu}}{{\rm{d}}s^2} + {\Gamma}^{\mu}_{{\alpha}{\beta}} \frac{{\rm{d}}x^{\alpha}}{{\rm{d}}s} \frac{{\rm{d}}x^{\beta}}{{\rm{d}}s}=0 \tag{15}
ds2d2xμ+Γαβμdsdxαdsdxβ=0(15)
注:仿射参量线性变换后仍是仿射参量 τ = a σ + b \tau=a\sigma+b τ=aσ+b
6.2 短程线 — 两点距离取极值的世界线
利用变分法求两点之间的短程线,定义泛函
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S=\int^B_A{\rm{d}}s
S=∫ABds
积分路径是任意的,线元可以表示为
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{\rm{d}}s=({g_{\mu\nu}{\rm{d}}x^{\mu}}{\rm{d}}x^{\nu})^{1/2}=(g_{\mu\nu}\dot{x^{\mu}}\dot{x^{\nu}})^{1/2} {\rm{d}}s \tag{16}
ds=(gμνdxμdxν)1/2=(gμνxμ˙xν˙)1/2ds(16)
短程线应满足
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(17)
{\delta}S={\delta}\int^B_A L{\rm{d}}s =0 \tag{17}
δS=δ∫ABLds=0(17)
其中
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L=L(x^{\mu}(s),\dot{x^{\mu}(s),s}) =(g_{\mu\nu}\dot{x^{\mu}}\dot{x^{\nu}})^{1/2}=1
L=L(xμ(s),xμ(s),s˙)=(gμνxμ˙xν˙)1/2=1
应用欧拉-拉格朗日方程
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(18)
\frac{\partial L}{{\partial}x^{\alpha}}-\frac{{\rm{d}}}{{\rm{d}}s} \frac{\partial L}{{\partial}\dot{x^{\alpha}}}=0 \tag{18}
∂xα∂L−dsd∂xα˙∂L=0(18)
代入化简
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\frac{\dot{x^{\mu}}\dot{x^{\nu}}}{(g_{\mu\nu}\dot{x^{\mu}}\dot{x^{\nu}})^{1/2}} \frac{{\partial}g_{\mu\nu}}{{\partial}x^{\alpha}} - \frac{{\rm{d}}}{{\rm{d}}s} \left[ \frac{g_{\mu\nu}{\delta}^{\mu}_{\alpha}\dot{x^{\nu}}+g_{\mu\nu}\dot{x^{\mu}}{\delta}^{\nu}_{\alpha}}{(g_{\mu\nu}\dot{x^{\mu}}\dot{x^{\nu}})^{1/2}} \right]=0 \\ (g_{\mu\nu}\dot{x^{\mu}}\dot{x^{\nu}})^{1/2}=1 \quad \Rightarrow \quad g_{\mu\nu\ , \alpha}\ \dot{x^{\mu}}\dot{x^{\nu}} -2\frac{{\rm{d}}}{{\rm{d}}s}(g_{\alpha\mu}\dot{x^{\mu}})=0
(gμνxμ˙xν˙)1/2xμ˙xν˙∂xα∂gμν−dsd[(gμνxμ˙xν˙)1/2gμνδαμxν˙+gμνxμ˙δαν]=0(gμνxμ˙xν˙)1/2=1⇒gμν ,α xμ˙xν˙−2dsd(gαμxμ˙)=0
∵ d g α μ d s = d g α μ d x ν d x ν d s = g α μ , ν x ν ˙ ∴ g μ ν , α x μ ˙ x ν ˙ − 2 g α μ , ν x ν ˙ x μ ˙ − 2 g α μ x ¨ μ = 0 g α μ x ¨ μ + ( g α μ , ν − 1 2 g μ ν , α ) x μ ˙ x ν ˙ = 0 \begin{aligned} &\because \frac{{\rm{d}}g_{\alpha\mu}}{{\rm{d}}s}=\frac{{\rm{d}}g_{\alpha\mu}}{{\rm{d}}x^{\nu}} \frac{{\rm{d}}x^{\nu}}{{\rm{d}}s}=g_{\alpha\mu \ ,\ \nu}\ \dot{x^{\nu}} \\ &\therefore \ \ g_{\mu\nu\ , \alpha}\ \dot{x^{\mu}} \dot{x^{\nu}} - 2g_{\alpha\mu \ ,\ \nu}\ \dot{x^{\nu}} \dot{x^{\mu}} - 2g_{\alpha\mu}\ddot{x}^{\mu}=0 \\ &\qquad g_{\alpha\mu}\ddot{x}^{\mu}+\left( g_{\alpha\mu\ ,\ \nu}- \frac{1}{2}g_{\mu\nu\ ,\ \alpha} \right)\dot{x^{\mu}}\dot{x^{\nu}}=0 \end{aligned} ∵dsdgαμ=dxνdgαμdsdxν=gαμ , ν xν˙∴ gμν ,α xμ˙xν˙−2gαμ , ν xν˙xμ˙−2gαμx¨μ=0gαμx¨μ+(gαμ , ν−21gμν , α)xμ˙xν˙=0
注意到
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g_{\alpha\mu \ ,\ \nu}\ \dot{x^{\mu}}\dot{x^{\nu}}=g_{\mu\alpha\ ,\ \nu}\ \dot{x^{\mu}}\dot{x^{\nu}}=g_{\nu\alpha \ ,\ \mu}\ \dot{x^{\nu}}\dot{x^{\mu}}
gαμ , ν xμ˙xν˙=gμα , ν xμ˙xν˙=gνα , μ xν˙xμ˙
那么便可改写为
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g_{\alpha\mu}\ddot{x}^{\mu}+\frac{1}{2} \left( g_{\mu\alpha\ ,\ \nu} + g_{\nu\alpha \ ,\ \mu} - g_{\mu\nu\ ,\ \alpha} \right)\dot{x^{\mu}}\dot{x^{\nu}}=0
gαμx¨μ+21(gμα , ν+gνα , μ−gμν , α)xμ˙xν˙=0
左乘
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gσα 括号内的表达式即化为克氏符,就得到短程线方程
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\frac{{\rm{d}}^2x^{\sigma}}{{\rm{d}}s^2} + {\Gamma}^{\sigma}_{\mu\nu} \frac{{\rm{d}}x^{\mu}}{{\rm{d}}s} \frac{{\rm{d}}x^{\nu}}{{\rm{d}}s}=0 \tag{19}
ds2d2xσ+Γμνσdsdxμdsdxν=0(19)
与测地线方程
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(15) 一致,但要注意短程线方程
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(19) 中的
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Γμνσ 是克氏符,与度规有确定的泛函关系,只在无挠黎曼空间中成立;测地线方程中的联络不是克氏符,在仿射空间中均成立. 而测地线/短程线的方程形式却完全一致,只是联络不同. 因此可以说,从仿射空间到黎曼空间 (被“人为”赋予一些特征和性质) 我们做的事是:引入度规,并且要求度规与协变导数适配,然后联络随之被度规确定.
注:短程线取极值,线长有可能最短或最长 (局域). 对于度规正定的空间,短程线是最短的一条世界线;对于不定空间却不然,研究表明如果两点之间的短程线是类时的 (亚光速,有因果联系),则短程线是取极大值的一条.
6.3 再谈空间平坦性
我们说曲率和挠率都是零的空间是平直的,因为这时矢量平移时不改变分量,沿无穷小环路平移一周与原矢量重合而不附加任何移动和转动,测地线方程化为直线方程。按照张量变换性质,如果一个坐标系中张量所有分量为零,则所有坐标系它都为零,因此挠率和曲率是描述空间内禀性质的张量。但要注意联络不是张量,依赖坐标系的选择。无挠黎曼空间若平坦要求 R λ μ ν ρ = 0 R^{\rho}_{{\lambda}{\mu}{\nu}}=0 Rλμνρ=0 ,在这个平坦的黎曼空间中总可以找到一个坐标系让联络所有分量为零,根据(23)可得 g μ ν , λ = 0 g_{{\mu}{\nu}\ ,\ {\lambda}}=0 gμν , λ=0 ,即度规分量为常数 (不考虑度规随时变化的情况) ,这样的度规可对角化。因此当 (无挠) 黎曼空间是一个平坦的四维时空时,度规可化为闵可夫斯基度规 η μ ν \eta_{\mu\nu} ημν (在某个坐标系,应该就是狭相所用的惯性系,更准确地说是瞬时静止惯性系!)