数据字节存储编年史

注：机翻，已初校。

The Life of a Data Byte

Be kind and rewind. 请小心倒带。
– Jessie Frazelle

斐夷所非 注

这句话来自 Jessie Frazelle 对电影《Be Kind Rewind》（中文译名《小心倒带》）的引用。该电影讲述了两个朋友发现他们的录像带店的磁带遭到了损坏，于是他们开始重新拍摄和重复录制电影的故事。

此处，Jessie Frazelle 以一种幽默的方式将电影标题用于描述数据字节的生命历程，数据字节也需要被 " 倒带"备份 或重写（恢复），以确保其可靠性。

A byte of data has been stored in a number of different ways through the years as newer, better, and faster storage media are introduced. A byte is a unit of digital information that most commonly refers to eight bits. A bit is a unit of information that can be expressed as 0 or 1, representing a logical state. Let’s take a brief walk down memory lane to learn about the origins of bits and bytes.
多年来，随着新的、更好的和更快的存储介质的引入，一字节的数据已经以多种不同的方式存储。一字节是最常见的数字信息单位，通常指八位。位是信息的单位，可以表示为 0 或 1，代表逻辑状态。让我们简要回顾一下位和字节的起源。

Going back in time to Babbage’s Analytical Engine, you can see that a bit was stored as the position of a mechanical gear or lever. In the case of paper cards, a bit was stored as the presence or absence of a hole in the card at a specific place. For magnetic storage devices, such as tapes and disks, a bit is represented by the polarity of a certain area of the magnetic film. In modern DRAM (dynamic random-access memory), a bit is often represented as two levels of electrical charge stored in a capacitor, a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field. (In the early 1960s, the paper cards used to input programs for IBM mainframes were known as Hollerith cards, named after their inventor, Herman Hollerith from the Tabulating Machines Company—which through numerous mergers is what is now known as IBM.)
回到巴贝奇的分析引擎时代，位被存储为机械齿轮或杠杆的位置。在纸卡片上，位是指卡片上特定位置有无孔的状态。对于磁存储设备，如磁带和磁盘，位由磁膜特定区域的极性表示。在现代动态随机存取存储器（DRAM）中，位通常表示为存储在电容器中的两个电荷电平，电容器是一种利用电场存储电荷存储电能的装置。（在 1960 年代初期，用于为 IBM 大型机输入程序的纸卡被称为 Hollerith 卡，以其发明者 Herman Hollerith 的名字命名，该公司经过多次合并，才成为现在的 IBM）。

In June 1956, Werner Buchholz (archive.computerhistory.org) coined the word byte (archive.org) to refer to a group of bits used to encode a single character of text (bobbemer.com). Let’s address character encoding, starting with ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange). ASCII was based on the English alphabet; therefore, every letter, digit, and symbol (a-z, A-Z, 0-9, +, -, /, “, !, etc.) was represented as a seven-bit integer between 32 and 127. This wasn’t very friendly to other languages. To support other languages, Unicode extended ASCII so that each character is represented as a code-point. For example, a lowercasejisU+006A, whereU stands for Unicode followed by a hexadecimal number.
1956 年 6 月，沃纳・布赫霍尔兹创造了 “字节”（byte）一词，用于指代用于编码单个文本字符的一组位。让我们讨论字符编码，从 ASCII（美国标准信息交换码）开始。ASCII 基于英文字母表，因此每个字母、数字和符号（a-z、A-Z、0-9、+、-、/、”、! 等）都被表示为 32 到 127 之间的 7 位整数。这对其他语言并不友好。为了支持其他语言，Unicode 扩展了 ASCII，使每个字符表示为一个代码点。例如，小写字母 j 的 Unicode 代码点是 U+006A，其中 U 代表 Unicode，后跟一个十六进制数。

斐夷所非 注

在 ASCII 字符编码中，数值小于 32 的是不可打印的控制字符，通常用于控制设备和数据传输。
这些控制字符包括：
NUL (Null)：空字符，用于字符串终止
SOH (Start of Header)：报头起始
STX (Start of Text)：文本起始
ETX (End of Text)：文本结束
EOT (End of Transmission)：传输结束
ENQ (Enquiry)：查询
ACK (Acknowledge)：确认接收
BEL (Bell)：响铃
BS (Backspace)：退格
HT (Horizontal Tab)：水平制表符
LF (Line Feed)：换行符
VT (Vertical Tab)：垂直制表符
FF (Form Feed)：换页符
CR (Carriage Return)：回车
SO (Shift Out)：转义到另一字符集
SI (Shift In)：转回原来的字符集
DLE (Data Link Escape)：数据链路转义
DC1 to DC4 (Device Control)：设备控制

UTF-8 is the standard for representing characters as eight bits, allowing every code-point from 0 to 127 to be stored in a single byte. This is fine for English characters, but other languages often have characters that are expressed as two or more bytes. UTF-16 is the standard for representing characters as 16 bits, and UTF-32 is the standard for 32 bits. In ASCII every character is a byte, but in Unicode, that’s often not true—a character can be one, two, three, or more bytes. Groups of characters might also be referred to as words, as in this linked Univac ad (archive.org) calling out “1 kiloword or 12,000 characters.”
UTF-8 是将字符表示为 8 位的标准，允许将从 0 到 127 的每个代码点存储在单个字节中。这对英文字符来说是可以的，但其他语言的字符通常需要用两个或更多字节表示。UTF-16 是将字符表示为 16 位的标准，UTF-32 是将字符表示为 32 位的标准。在 ASCII 中，每个字符是一个字节，但在 Unicode 中，情况通常并非如此 —— 一个字符可以是一个、两个、三个或更多字节。字符组合有时也称为“字”，如这则链接到 Univac 广告中提到的 “1 千字或 12,000 个字符”。

This article refers throughout to different-sized groupings of bits—the number of bits in a byte varying according to the design of the storage medium in the past. This article also travels in time through various storage media, diving into how data has been stored throughout history. By no means does this include every single storage medium ever manufactured, sold, or distributed. This article is meant to be fun and informative but not encyclopedic. It wraps up with a look at the current and future technologies for storage.
本文中还提到了不同大小的位组——字节中的位数根据存储介质的设计在过去有所变化。本文通过各种存储介质，探讨了数据在历史上的存储方式。这并不包括所有曾被制造、销售或分发的存储介质，旨在既有趣又富有信息性，但并非百科全书式的详尽。文章最后展望了当前和未来的存储技术。

To get started, let’s assume we have a byte of data to be stored: the letter j, or as an encoded byte 6a, or in binary 01101010. As we travel through time, this data byte will come into play in some of the storage technologies covered here.
首先，假设我们有一个要存储的数据字节：字母 j, 或编码字节 6a，或二进制 01101010。随着时间的推移，这个数据字节将在本文所涵盖的一些存储技术中发挥作用。

1951

The story begins in 1951 with the Uniservo tape drive for the Univac 1 computer, the first tape drive made for a commercial computer. The tape was three pounds of a thin strip (half-inch) of nickel-plated phosphor bronze, called vicalloy, which was 1,200 feet long. Our data byte could be stored at a rate of 7,200 characters per second (computerhistory.org) on tape moving at 100 inches per second. At this point in history, you could measure the speed of a storage algorithm by the distance the tape traveled.
故事始于 1951 年，Univac 1 计算机的 Uniservo 磁带驱动器首次问世，这是商用计算机的第一款磁带驱动器。磁带由镍镀磷青铜（称为 vicalloy）制成，厚度为半英寸，长度达 1200 英尺。我们的数据字节可以以每秒 7200 个字符的速度存储，磁带移动速度为每秒 100 英寸。在这一历史时期，您可以通过磁带行进的距离来衡量存储算法的速度。

1952

Let’s fast forward a year to May 21, 1952, when IBM announced its first magnetic tape unit, the IBM 726. Our data byte could now be moved off Uniservo metal tape onto IBM’s magnetic tape. This new home would be super cozy for our very small data byte since the tape could store up to 2 million digits. This magnetic seven-track tape moved at 75 inches per second with a transfer rate of 12,500 digits (ibm.com) or 7,500 characters (ibm.com)—called copy groups at the time— per second. For reference, this article has 35,123 characters.
让我们快进到 1952 年 5 月 21 日，IBM 宣布推出其第一台磁带机，IBM 726。我们的数据字节现在可以从 Uniservo 金属磁带迁移到 IBM 的磁带上。这个新的家对我们这个非常小的数据字节来说非常舒适，因为磁带可以存储高达 200 万数位。这种磁性七轨磁带以每秒 75 英寸的速度移动，传输速率为每秒 12500 位数字或 7500 个字符，当时称为复制组。作为参考，本文共有 35123 个字符。

Seven-track tapes had six tracks for data and one to maintain parity by ensuring that the total number of 1-bits in the string was even or odd. Data was recorded at 100 bits per linear inch. This system used a vacuum channel method of keeping a loop of tape circulating between two points. This allowed the tape drive to start and stop the tape in a split second. This was done by placing long vacuum columns between the tape reels and the read/write heads to absorb sudden increases in tension in the tape, without which the tape would have typically broken. A removable plastic ring on the back of the tape reel provided write protection. About 1.1 MB could be stored on one reel of tape (spectrum.ieee.org).
七轨磁带有六条数据轨和一条奇偶校验轨道，通过确保字符串中的 1 位总数为偶数或奇数来维护奇偶校验。数据以每英寸 100 位线性记录。该系统采用真空通道方法，将磁带循环在两个点之间。这使得磁带驱动器可以在瞬间启动和停止磁带。通过在磁带卷轴和读 / 写头之间放置长真空柱来吸收磁带的突然张力增加，否则磁带可能会断裂。磁带卷轴背面的可移动塑料环提供了写保护。一个磁带卷可以存储约 1.1 MB 的数据。

Think back to VHS tapes: What was required before returning a movie to Blockbuster? Rewinding the tape! The same could be said for the tape used for computers. Programs could not hop around a tape, or randomly access data—they had to read and write in sequential order.
回想一下 VHS 磁带：在将电影归还给 Blockbuster 之前需要什么？倒带！对于用于计算机的磁带也是如此。程序不能在磁带上随意跳跃或随机访问数据，它们必须按顺序读写。

1956

The era of magnetic-disk storage began in 1956 with IBM’s completion of the 305 RAMAC computer delivered to Zellerbach Paper in San Francisco (ibm.com). This computer was the first to use a moving-head HDD (hard disk drive). The RAMAC disk drive consisted of 50 magnetically coated 24-inch-diameter metal platters capable of storing about 5 million characters of data, at seven bits per character, and spinning at 1,200 revolutions per minute. The storage capacity was about 3.75 MB.
1956 年，磁盘存储时代开始了，IBM 完成了交付给旧金山 Zellerbach Paper 公司的 305 RAMAC 计算机。这台计算机是首台采用移动磁头硬盘驱动器（HDD）的计算机。RAMAC 磁盘驱动器由 50 个直径 24 英寸的镀磁金属盘片组成，可存储约 500 万个字符的数据，每个字符为 7 位，旋转速度为每分钟 1200 转。存储容量约为 3.75 MB。

RAMAC allowed realtime random access memory to large amounts of data, unlike magnetic tape or punch cards. IBM advertised the RAMAC as being able to store the equivalent of 64,000 punched cards (youtube.com). Previously, transactions were held until a group of data was accumulated and batch processed. The RAMAC introduced the concept of continuously processing transactions as they occurred so data could be retrieved immediately when it was fresh. Our data byte could now be accessed in the RAMAC at 100,000 bits per second (ibm.com). Prior to this, with tapes, people had to write and read sequential data and could not randomly jump to various parts of the tape. Realtime random access of data was truly revolutionary at this time.
RAMAC 允许对大量数据进行实时随机访问内存，不同于磁带或穿孔卡片。IBM 将 RAMAC 宣传为能存储相当于 64000 张穿孔卡片的数据。此前，事务需要积累一组数据才能批量处理。RAMAC 引入了连续处理事务的概念，使得数据在产生时立即可被检索。我们的数据字节现在可以以每秒 100000 位的速度在 RAMAC 中访问。在此之前，对于磁带，人们必须按顺序写入和读取数据，并且不能随机跳转到磁带的各个部分。实时随机访问数据在当时是革命性的。

1963

DECtape was introduced in 1963. Its namesake was the Digital Equipment Corporation, known as DEC for short. DECtape was inexpensive and reliable, so it was used in many generations of DEC computers. This ¾-inch tape was laminated and sandwiched between two layers of Mylar on a four-inch reel.
DECtape 于 1963 年推出。它的名字来自数字设备公司，简称 DEC。DECtape 价格低廉可靠，因此被广泛应用于多代 DEC 计算机中。这种 ¾ 英寸磁带被夹在两层聚酯薄膜之间，卷在四英寸的卷轴上。

DECtape could be carried by hand, as opposed to its large weighty predecessors, making it great for personal computers. In contrast to seven-track tape, DECtape had six data tracks, two mark tracks, and two clock tracks. Data was recorded at 350 bits per inch. Our data byte, which is eight bits but could be expanded to 12, could be transferred to DECtape at 8,325 12-bit words per second with a tape speed of 93 +/-12 inches per second (pdp8.net). This is eight percent more digits per second than the Uniservo metal tape from 1952.
DECtape 可以手持，与其沉重的前辈相比非常适合个人计算机使用。与七轨磁带相比，DECtape 有六个数据轨道、两个标记轨道和两个时钟轨道。数据以每英寸 350 位记录。我们的数据字节，虽然是 8 位，但可以扩展到 12 位，可以以每秒 8325 个 12 位字的速度传输到 DECtape 上，磁带速度为每秒 93 +/-12 英寸。这比 1952 年的 Uniservo 金属磁带每秒多 8% 的数字。

1967

Four years later, in 1967, a small team at IBM started working on the IBM floppy-disk drive, code-named Minnow (ibm.com). At the time, the team was tasked with developing a reliable and inexpensive way to load microcode into IBM System/370 mainframes (archive.org). The project then got reassigned and repurposed to load microcode into the controller for the IBM 3330 Direct Access Storage Facility, code-named Merlin.
四年后的 1967 年，IBM 的一个小团队开始研发 IBM 软盘驱动器，代号 Minnow。当时，该团队的任务是开发一种可靠且廉价的方法，将微码加载到 IBM System/370 主机中。项目后来被重新分配和重新调整用于将微码加载到 IBM 3330 直接存取存储设备的控制器中，代号 Merlin。

Our data byte could now be stored on read-only eight-inch flexible Mylar disks coated with magnetic material, known as floppy disks. At the time of release, the result of the project was named the IBM 23FD Floppy Disk Drive System. The disks could hold 80 KB of data. Unlike hard drives, a user could easily transfer a floppy in its protective jacket from one drive to another. Later, in 1973, IBM released a read/write floppy-disk drive, which then became an industry standard (web.archive.org).
我们的数据字节现在可以存储在用磁性材料涂层的只读八英寸柔性 Mylar （柔性聚酯薄膜）盘片上，这就是软盘。在发布时，该项目的结果被命名为 IBM 23FD 软盘驱动器系统。软盘可以存储 80 KB 的数据。与硬盘不同，用户可以轻松将保护套中的软盘从一个驱动器传输到另一个驱动器。后来，1973 年，IBM 发布了一款读 / 写软盘驱动器，随后成为行业标准。

1969

In 1969, the AGC (Apollo Guidance Computer) read-only rope memory was launched into space aboard Apollo 11, which carried American astronauts to the moon and back. This rope memory was made by hand and could hold 72 KB of data. Manufacturing rope memory was laborious, slow, and required skills analogous to textile work; it could take months to weave a program into the rope memory (authors.library.caltech.edu), shown in figure 1. But it was the right tool for the job at the time to resist the harsh rigors of space. When a wire went through one of the circular cores, it represented a 1. Wires that went around a core represented a 0. Our data byte would take a human a few minutes to weave into the rope.
1969 年，AGC（阿波罗导航计算机）只读绳索存储器搭载阿波罗 11 号成功进入太空，执行使美国宇航员登月并返回地球的任务。这种绳索存储器是手工制作的，可以存储 72 KB 的数据。制造绳索存储器非常费时费力，需要类似纺织工作的技能；编织一个程序进入绳索存储器可能需要数月时间，如图 1 所示。但在当时，它是一种合适的工具，可以抵御太空的严酷考验。当导线穿过其中一个圆形磁芯时，表示 1。绕着磁芯的导线代表 0。我们的数据字节需要一个人花几分钟才能编进绳索存储器里。

1977

The Commodore PET, the first (successful) mass-market personal computer, was released in 1977. Built into the PET was a Commodore 1530 Datasette (a portmanteau of data plus cassette). The PET converted data into analog sound signals that were then stored on cassettes (wav-prg.sourceforge.net). This made for a cost-effective and reliable storage solution, albeit very slow. Our small data byte could be transferred at a rate of around 60-70 bytes per second (c64-wiki.com). The cassettes could hold about 100 KB per 30-minute side, with two sides per tape. For example, you could fit about two (“rickroll” warning) 55 KB images (blog.jessfraz.com) on one side of the cassette. The Datasette also appeared in the Commodore VIC-20 and Commodore 64.
1977 年发布的Commodore PET 是第一款（成功的）大众市场个人计算机 。Commodore PET 内置了 Commodore 1530 Datasette（数据加磁带的组合）。PET 将数据转换为模拟音频信号，然后存储在磁带盒中。尽管非常慢，这使得它成为一种经济实惠且可靠的存储解决方案。我们的小型数据字节可以以每秒 60-70 字节的速度传输。磁带盒每盘有两面，每面可以容纳约 100 KB 的数据。例如，您可以在磁带的一面放置大约两个（“rickroll” 警告）55 KB 的图像。Datasette 还出现在 Commodore VIC-20 和 Commodore 64 上。

1978

Let’s jump ahead a year to 1978 when the LaserDisc was introduced as Discovision by MCA and Philips. Jaws was the first film sold on a LaserDisc in North America. The audio and video quality on a LaserDisc were far better than the competitors’, but too expensive for most consumers. As opposed to VHS tape, which consumers could use to record TV programs, the LaserDisc could not be written to. LaserDiscs used analog video with analog FM stereo sound and PCM (pulse-code modulation) digital audio (tools.ietf.org). The disks were 12 inches in diameter and composed of two single-sided aluminum disks layered in plastic. The LaserDisc is remembered today as being the foundation CDs that DVDs were built upon.

让我们跳到 1978 年，当时由 MCA 和飞利浦推出了 LaserDisc，称为 Discovision。《大白鲨》是北美首部在 LaserDisc 上销售的电影。LaserDisc 的音频和视频质量远超竞争对手，但对大多数消费者来说价格过高。与可用于录制电视节目的 VHS 录像带不同，LaserDisc 不能被写入。LaserDisc 使用模拟视频与模拟 FM 立体声音频以及脉冲编码调制（PCM）数字音频。这些光盘直径为 12 英寸，由两个单面的铝盘片层叠而成。LaserDisc 如今被视为建立 CD 和 DVD 基础的媒介。

1979

A year later, in 1979, Alan Shugart and Finis Conner founded Seagate Technology with the idea of scaling down a hard disk drive to be the same size as a 5¼-inch floppy disk, which at the time was the standard. Their first product, in 1980, was the Seagate ST506, the first HDD for microcomputers. The 5¼-inch disk held 5 MB of data, which at the time was five times more than the standard floppy disk. It was a rigid, metallic platter coated on both sides with a thin layer of magnetic material to store data. Our data byte could be transferred at a speed of 625 [KB/s](https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/st506#:~:text=ST506,using the MFM encoding method) (pcmag.com) onto the disk. That’s about one (second and final “rickroll” warning) 625 KB animated GIF (blog.jessfraz.com) per second.
一年后的 1979 年，Alan Shugart 和 Finis Conner 创立了希捷科技公司（ Seagate Technology），他们的想法是将硬盘驱动器缩小到与当时标准的 5¼ 英寸软盘相同的大小。他们的第一款产品在 1980 年推出，名为 Seagate ST506，是微型计算机的第一款HDD（硬盘驱动器）。5¼ 英寸软盘可存储 5 MB 的数据，是当时标准软盘的五倍。它是由金属制成的坚硬盘片，两面覆盖有薄层磁性材料用于存储数据。我们的数据字节可以以 625 KB/s 的速度传输到这个硬盘上。这相当于每秒一个（第二个也是最后一个 “rickroll” 警告）625 KB 的动画 GIF。

1981

A couple of years later Sony introduced the first 3½-inch floppy drive. Hewlett-Packard was the first adopter of the technology in 1982 with its HP-150. This put the 3½-inch floppy disk on the map and gave it wide distribution in the industry (jstor.org). The disks were single-sided with a formatted capacity of 161.2 KB and an unformatted capacity of 218.8 KB. In 1982 the double-sided version was made available, and the Microfloppy Industry Committee, a consortium of 23 media companies, based a spec for a 3½-inch floppy on Sony’s original designs, cementing the format into history (americanradiohistory.com). Our data byte could now be stored on the early version of one of the most widely distributed storage media: the 3½-inch floppy disk.
几年后，Sony 推出了第一款 3½ 英寸软盘驱动器。1982 年，惠普推出了 HP-150，率先采用这项技术。这使得 3½ 英寸软盘在业界广泛应用。这些软盘是单面的，格式化容量为 161.2 KB，未格式化容量为 218.8 KB。1982 年推出了双面版本，微软盘工业委员会（一个由 23 家媒体公司组成的联盟）基于 Sony 的原始设计制定了 3½ 英寸软盘的规范，从而使这种格式得以载入史册。我们的数据字节现在可以存储在一种最广泛分发的存储介质的早期版本上：3½ 英寸软盘。

1984

In 1984 the CD-ROM (compact disk read-only memory), holding 550 MB of prerecorded data, was announced by Sony and Philips. This format grew out of CD-DA (compact disk digital audio), developed by the two companies in 1982. The CD-DA, which was used for distributing music, had a capacity of 74 minutes. When Sony and Philips were negotiating the standard for a CD-DA, legend has it that one of the four people involved insisted it be able to hold all of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony (wired.com). The first product released on CD-ROM was Grolier’s Electronic Encyclopedia, which came out in 1985. The encyclopedia contained 9 million words, occupying only 12 percent of the available space, which was 553 mebibytes (books.google.co.uk). There would be more than enough room for the encyclopedia and our data byte. Shortly thereafter in 1985, computer and electronics companies worked together to create a standard for the disks so any computer would be able to access the information.
1984 年，索尼和飞利浦宣布了可存储 550 MB 预录数据的 CD-ROM（紧凑型光盘只读存储器）。这种格式起源于 1982 年两家公司开发的 CD-DA（紧凑型数字音频光盘）。CD-DA 用于音乐发行，容量为 74 分钟。当索尼和飞利浦为 CD-DA 制定标准时，传说四人中的一位坚持要求能够容纳贝多芬第九交响曲的全部。首个以 CD-ROM 形式发布的产品是 Grolier 的电子百科全书，于 1985 年推出。这部百科全书包含 900 万字，仅占可用空间的 12％，即 553 兆字节。这个空间足够容纳百科全书和其他的数据字节。随后不久的 1985 年，计算机和电子公司合作制定了这些光盘的标准，以便任何计算机都能访问这些信息。

1984

Also in 1984, Fujio Masuoka published his work on a new type of floating-gate memory, called flash memory, which was capable of being erased and reprogrammed multiple times.
同样在 1984 年，Fujio Masuoka 发表了他关于一种新型浮栅存储器（称为闪存）的研究，称为闪存，能够多次擦除和重新编程。

Let’s first review how floating-gate memory works. It uses transistors, which are electrical gates that can be switched on and off individually. Since each transistor can be in two distinct states (on or off), it can store two different numbers: 0 and 1. Floating gate refers to the second gate added to the middle transistor. This second gate is insulated by a thin oxide layer. These transistors use a small voltage applied to the gate of the transistor to denote whether it is on or off, which in turn translates to a 0 or 1.
让我们首先回顾一下浮栅存储器的工作原理。它使用晶体管，这些晶体管电子门可以单独开关。由于每个晶体管可以处于两种不同的状态（开或关），它可以存储两个不同的数字：0 和 1。浮栅指的是添加到中间晶体管的第二个门（栅极）。第二个门由一层薄薄的氧化物层隔离。这些晶体管使用施加在晶体管门上的小电压来表示它是开还是关，从而转换为 0 或 1。

With a floating gate, when a suitable voltage is applied across the oxide layer, the electrons tunnel through it and get stuck on the floating gate. Therefore, even if the power is disconnected, the electrons remain present on the floating gate. When no electrons are on the floating gate, it represents a 1; and when electrons are trapped on the floating gate, it represents a 0. Reversing this process and applying a suitable voltage across the oxide layer in the opposite direction causes the electrons to tunnel off the floating gate and restores the transistor to its original state. Thus, the cells are made programmable and nonvolatile (economist.com). Our data byte could be programmed into the transistors as 01001010, with electrons trapped in the floating gates to represent the zeros.
有了浮栅后，当在氧化层施加适当电压时，电子会穿过它并卡在浮栅上。因此，即使断电，电子仍然停留在浮栅上。当浮栅上没有电子时，表示为 1；当浮栅上有电子被困时，表示为 0。反转这个过程并在相反方向施加适当电压穿过氧化层会使电子从浮栅上隧穿出去，并恢复晶体管到原始状态。因此，这些单元是可编程和非易失性的。我们的数据字节可以编程到晶体管中作为 01001010，电子被困在浮栅上表示 0，电子被释放表示 1。

Masuoka’s design was a bit more affordable but less flexible than EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory), since it required multiple groups of cells to be erased together, but this also accounted for its speed. At the time, Masuoka was working for Toshiba but quit the company shortly after to become a professor at Tohoku University. He was displeased with Toshiba for not rewarding him for his work and sued the company, demanding compensation for his work. The case settled in 2006 with a one-time payment of ¥87m, equivalent to $758,000. This still seems low, given how impactful flash memory has been on the industry.
Masuoka 的设计比 EEPROM（电可擦可编程只读存储器）更为经济，但灵活性较差，因为需要将多组单元一起擦除，但这也解释了它的速度。当时，Masuoka 在东芝工作，但不久后因不满东芝未对其工作予以奖励而辞职，成为东北大学的教授。他对东芝提起诉讼，要求对其工作进行赔偿。此案于 2006 年结案，东芝一次性支付了 8,700 万日元，相当于 75.8 万美元。考虑到闪存对行业的影响，这仍显得很低。

While on the topic of flash memory, let’s look at the difference between NOR and NAND flash. Flash stores information in memory cells made up of floating-gate transistors. The names of the technologies are tied directly to the way the memory cells are organized.
在谈论闪存时，让我们看看 NOR 和 NAND 闪存之间的区别。闪存使用由浮栅晶体管组成的存储单元。技术名称直接与存储单元的组织方式相关。

In NOR flash, individual memory cells are connected in parallel, allowing the random access. This architecture enables the short read times required for the random access of microprocessor instructions. NOR flash is ideal for lower-density applications that are mostly read-only. This is why most CPUs typically load their firmware from NOR flash. Masuoka and colleagues presented the invention of NOR flash in 1984 and NAND flash in 1987 (ieeexplore.ieee.org).

在 NOR 闪存中，单个存储单元并联连接，允许随机访问。这种架构使得微处理器指令的随机访问所需的短读取时间成为可能。NOR 闪存非常适合只读的低密度应用程序。这就是为什么大多数 CPU 通常从 NOR 闪存加载其固件的原因。Masuoka 和他的同事在 1984 年提出了 NOR 闪存的发明，以及 1987 年提出的 NAND 闪存。

In contrast, NAND flash designers gave up the ability for random access in a tradeoff to gain a smaller memory cell size. This also has the benefits of a smaller chip size and lower cost-per-bit. NAND flash’s architecture consists of an array of eight memory transistors connected in a series. This leads to high storage density, smaller memory-cell size, and faster write and erase since it can program blocks of data at a time. This comes at the cost of having to overwrite data when it is not sequentially written and [data already exists in a block](http://aturing.umcs.maine.edu/~meadow/courses/cos335/Toshiba NAND_vs_NOR_Flash_Memory_Technology_Overviewt.pdf) (aturing.umcs.maine.edu).
相比之下，NAND 闪存设计者为了获得更小的存储单元尺寸放弃了随机访问的能力。这也带来了芯片尺寸更小和每位成本更低的好处。NAND 闪存的架构由串联的八个存储器晶体管阵列组成。这导致高存储密度、更小的存储单元尺寸和更快的写入和擦除速度，因为它可以一次对数据块进行编程。这样做的代价是，当数据不是按顺序写入并且数据已经存在于块中时，必须覆盖数据 。

1991

Let’s jump ahead to 1991, when a prototype SSD (solid-state disk) module was made for evaluation by IBM from SanDisk, at the time known as SunDisk (computerhistory.org). This design combined a flash storage array and nonvolatile memory chips with an intelligent controller to detect and correct defective cells automatically. The disk was 20 MB in a 2½-inch form factor and sold for around $1,000 (meseec.ce.rit.edu). IBM wound up using it in the ThinkPad pen computer (westerndigital.com).
让我们跳到 1991 年，IBM 从当时称为 SunDisk 的 SanDisk 处获得了一款 SSD（固态硬盘）模块原型，用于评估。这一设计结合了闪存存储阵列和非易失性存储芯片，配备智能控制器，能够自动检测和纠正缺陷单元。该硬盘为 2½ 英寸，容量为 20 MB，售价约为 1,000 美元。IBM 最终将其用于 ThinkPad 笔记本电脑中。

1994

In 1994 Iomega released the Zip disk, a 100 MB cartridge in a 3½-inch form factor, a bit thicker than a standard 3½-inch disk. Later versions of the Zip disk could store up to 2 GB. These disks had the convenience of being as small as a floppy disk but with the ability to hold a larger amount of data, which made them compelling. Our data byte could be written onto a Zip disk at 1.4 MB/s. At the time, a 1.44 MB 3½-inch floppy would write at about 16 kB/s. In a Zip drive, heads are noncontact read/write and fly above the surface, which is similar to a hard drive but unlike other floppies. Because of reliability problems and the affordability of CDs, Zip disks eventually became obsolete.
1994 年，Iomega 推出了 Zip 盘，这是一种 3½ 英寸的 100 MB 磁盘盒，比标准 3½ 英寸软盘稍厚一点。后来的 Zip 磁盘能存储高达 2 GB 的数据。这些磁盘与软盘相比小巧便携，但能存储更多数据，因此备受青睐。我们的数据可以以 1.4 MB/s 的速度写入 Zip 盘。当时，1.44 MB 的 3½ 英寸软盘的写入速度大约为 16 kB/s。在 Zip 驱动器中，磁头是非接触式读写的，悬浮在表面上，类似于硬盘驱动器，但不同于其他软盘。然而，由于可靠性问题以及 CD 光盘的价格可接受性，Zip 盘最终变得过时了。

1994

Also in 1994, SanDisk introduced CompactFlash, which was widely adopted into consumer devices such as digital and video cameras. Like CD-ROMs, CompactFlash speed is based on x-ratings (8x, 20x, 133x, etc.). The maximum transfer rate is calculated based on the original audio CD transfer rate of 150 kB/s. This winds up looking like R = K × 150 kB/s, where R is the transfer rate and K is the speed rating. For 133x CompactFlash, our data byte would be written at 133 × 150 kB/s, or around 19,950 kB/s or 19.95 MB/s. The CompactFlash Association was founded in 1995 to create an industry standard for flash-based memory cards.
同样在 1994 年，SanDisk 推出了 CompactFlash，它被广泛应用于消费电子产品，如数码和视频相机。类似于 CD-ROM，CompactFlash 的速度基于 x 倍数（8 倍、20 倍、133 倍等）。最大传输速率基于原始音频 CD 的传输速率为 150 kB/s 计算。因此，对于 133 倍的 CompactFlash，我们的数据字节会以 133 × 150 kB/s 的速率写入，约为 19,950 kB/s 或 19.95 MB/s。CompactFlash 协会成立于 1995 年，旨在为基于闪存的存储卡制定行业标准。

1997

A few years later in 1997 the CD-RW (compact disc rewritable) was introduced. This optical disc was used for data storage, as well as for backing up and transferring files to various devices. CD-RWs can be rewritten only about 1,000 times, which at the time was not a limiting factor since users rarely overwrote data on one disk.
几年后的 1997 年，CD-RW（可重写的光盘）被推出。这种光学盘不仅用于数据存储，还用于备份和文件传输到各种设备。CD-RW 最多可重写约 1,000 次，这在当时并不是限制因素，因为用户很少覆盖同一张光盘上的数据。

CD-RWs are based on phase-change technology. During a phase change of a given medium, certain properties of the medium change. In the case of CD-RWs, phase shifts in a special compound, composed of silver, tellurium, and indium, cause reflecting lands and non-reflecting bumps, each representing a 0 or 1. When the compound is in a crystalline state, it is translucent, which indicates a 1. When the compound is melted into an amorphous state, it becomes opaque and nonreflective, which indicates a 0 (computer.howstuffworks.com). We could write our data byte 01001010 as non-reflecting bumps and reflecting lands this way.
CD-RW 基于相变技术。在介质的相变过程中，介质的某些特性会改变。对于 CD-RW，特定化合物（由银、碲和铟组成）的相移会引起反射平面和非反射凸起，每个表示一个 0 或 1。当化合物处于晶体状态时，它是半透明的，表示为 1。当化合物熔化成非晶态无定形时，它变得不透明且不反射，表示为 0。我们可以将数据字节 01001010 写入成非反射凸起和反射平面。
后来，CD-RW 逐渐失去了大部分市场份额，让位给 DVD。

1999

In 1999 IBM introduced the smallest hard drives in the world at the time: the IBM microdrive in 170 MB and 340 MB capacities. These were small hard disks, one inch in size, designed to fit into CompactFlash Type II slots. The intent was to create a device to be used like Compact Flash but with more storage capacity. These were soon replaced by USB flash drives, however, and larger CompactFlash cards once they became available. Like other hard drives, microdrives were mechanical and contained small, spinning disk platters.
1999 年，IBM 推出了当时世界上最小的硬盘：IBM 微型硬盘，容量为 170MB 和 340MB。这些是一英寸大小的小硬盘，设计用于适合 Compact Flash Type II 插槽。它的目的是创建一个像 Compact Flash 一样但有更大存储容量的设备。然而，这些很快就被 USB 闪存驱动器和更大的 CompactFlash 卡所取代。与其他硬盘驱动器一样，微型硬盘是机械的，包含小的旋转盘片。

2000

USB flash drives were introduced in 2000. These consisted of flash memory encased in a small form factor with a USB interface. Depending on the version of the USB interface used, the speed varies: USB 1.1 is limited to 1.5 Mbps, whereas USB 2.0 can handle 35 Mbps, and USB 3.0 can handle 625 Mbps (diffen.com). The first USB 3.1 type C drives were announced in March 2015 and have read/write speeds of 530 Mbps (web.archive.org). Unlike floppy and optical disks, USB devices are harder to scratch but still deliver the same use cases of data storage and transferring and backing up files. Because of this, drives for floppy and optical disks have since faded in popularity, replaced by USB ports.
2000 年，USB 闪存驱动器问世。这些驱动器由封装在带有 USB 接口的小型外壳中的闪存组成。根据使用的 USB 接口版本不同，速度也有所不同：USB 1.1 限制为 1.5Mbps，USB 2.0 可处理 35Mbps，USB 3.0 可处理 625Mbps。首批 USB 3.1 Type C 驱动器于 2015 年 3 月宣布推出，读写速度达到 530Mbps（web.archive.org）。与软盘和光盘不同，USB 设备不易划伤，但仍提供数据存储、传输和备份等用途。因此，软盘和光盘的驱动器已逐渐淡出市场，被 USB 端口所取代。

2005

HDD manufacturers started shipping products using PMR (perpendicular magnetic recording) (youtu.be) in 2005. Interestingly, this happened at the same time that Apple announced the iPod Nano, which used flash as opposed to the one-inch hard drives in the iPod Mini, causing a bit of an industry hoohaw (eetimes.com).
2005 年，硬盘制造商开始使用 PMR（垂直磁记录）产品。有趣的是，这正是苹果宣布 iPod Nano 使用闪存而不是 iPod Mini 中的一英寸硬盘的时候，引起了一些行业喧嚣。

A typical hard drive contains one or more rigid disks coated with a magnetically sensitive film consisting of tiny magnetic grains. Data is recorded when a magnetic write-head flies just above the spinning disk, much like a record player and a record, except a needle is in physical contact with the record. As the platters spin, the air in contact with them creates a slight breeze. Just as air on an airplane wing generates lift, the air generates lift on the head’s airfoil (books.google.com). The write-head rapidly flips the magnetization of one magnetic region of grains so that its magnetic pole points up or down to denote a 1 or a 0.
典型的硬盘包含一个或多个涂有磁敏感膜的 rigid 盘，膜上覆盖着微小的磁粒。数据被记录时，磁写头高速飞越旋转的盘面，就像唱盘和唱针一样，只是唱针与唱盘处于物理接触状态。随着盘面旋转，与其接触的空气产生轻微的气流。正如飞机机翼上的空气产生升力一样，空气也在写头的翼型表面产生升力。写头快速翻转磁粒区域的磁化方向，使其磁极朝上或朝下以表示 1 或 0。

The predecessor to PMR was LMR (longitudinal magnetic recording). PMR can deliver more than three times the storage density of LMR. The key difference between the two is that the grain structure and the magnetic orientation of the stored data of PMR media is columnar instead of longitudinal. PMR has better thermal stability and improved SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) as a result of better grain separation and uniformity. It also benefits from better writability because of stronger head fields and better magnetic alignment of the media. Like LMR, PMR’s fundamental limitations are based on the thermal stability of magnetically written bits of data and the need to have sufficient SNR to read back the information.
PMR 的前身是 LMR（纵向磁记录）。PMR 可以提供超过 LMR 三倍的存储密度。两者的关键区别在于， PMR 介质存储数据的晶粒结构和磁性取向是柱状，而不是纵向的。由于晶粒分离和均匀性更好，PMR 具有更好的热稳定性和更高的信噪比。它也因为更强的磁场和更好的磁介质对齐而具有更好的可写性。与 LMR 一样，PMR 的基本限制取决于磁性写入位的热稳定性和读回信息所需的足够信噪比。

2007

Hitachi Global Storage Technologies announced the first 1TB HDD in 2007. The Hitachi Deskstar 7K1000 used five 3.5-inch 200 GB platters and rotated at 7,200 RPM. This is in stark contrast to the world’s first HDD, the IBM RAMAC 350, which had a storage capacity of approximately 3.75 MB. How far we have come in 51 years! But wait, there’s more.
2007 年，日立全球存储技术公司宣布推出第一款 1TB 硬盘。日立 Deskstar 7K1000 使用五个 3.5 英寸的 200GB 盘片，转速为 7,200 转 / 分。这与世界上第一款硬盘 IBM RAMAC 350 形成鲜明对比，后者的存储容量约为 3.75MB。51 年来我们取得了多大的进步啊！但是，等等，还有更多。

2009

In 2009 technical work was beginning on NVMe (nonvolatile memory e xpress) (flashmemorysummit.com). NVM is a type of memory that has persistence, in contrast to volatile memory, which needs constant power to retain data. NVMe filled a need for a scalable host controller interface for PCIe (peripheral component interconnect express)-based SSDs (nvmexpress.org). More than 90 companies were part of the working group that developed the design. This was all based on prior work to define the NVMHCIS (nonvolatile memory host controller interface specification). Opening up a modern server would likely result in finding some NVMe drives. The best NVMe drives today can do about a 3,500 MB/s read and 3,300 MB/s write (pcgamer.com). For the data byte we started with, the character j, that is extremely fast compared with a couple of minutes to handweave rope memory for the Apollo Guidance Computer.
在 2009 年，NVMe（非易失性内存表达）技术开始进入技术开发阶段。NVM 是一种具有持久性的存储器，与易失性内存形成对比，后者需要持续供电以保持数据。NVMe 填补了基于 PCIe（外围组件互连表达）的 SSD（固态硬盘）的可扩展主机控制器接口的需求。超过 90 家公司参与了开发设计的工作组。这一切都基于之前用于定义 NVMHCIS（非易失性内存主机控制器接口规范）的工作。打开现代服务器后可能会发现一些 NVMe 驱动器。今天最好的 NVMe 驱动器可以实现约 3,500 MB/s 的读取速度和 3,300 MB/s 的写入速度。对于我们开始的数据字节，字母 j 来说，与为阿波罗导航计算机手工编织绳索存储器需要几分钟相比，这是极其快速的。

Today and the future 今天和未来

Now that we have traveled through time a bit, let’s take a look at the state of the art for SCM (storage class memory). Like NVM, SCM is persistent but goes further by also providing performance better than or comparable to primary memory, as well as byte addressability (ieeexplore.ieee.org). SCM aims to address some of the problems faced by caches today, such as the low density of SRAM (static random access memory). DRAM (arxiv.org) provides better density, but this comes at a cost of slower access times. DRAM also suffers from requiring constant power to refresh memory.
现在我们已经穿越了一点时间，让我们来看看 SCM（存储级内存）的最新技术。像 NVM 一样，SCM 具有持久性，但进一步提供了比主存更好或相当的性能，以及字节寻址能力。SCM 旨在解决今天缓存面临的一些问题，比如 SRAM（静态随机存取存储器）的低密度。DRAM（动态随机存取存储器）提供了更好的密度，但这是以较慢的访问时间为代价的。DRAM 还因需要持续供电来刷新内存。

Let’s break this down a bit. Power is required since the electric charge on the capacitors leaks off little by little; this means that without intervention, the data on the chip would soon be lost. To prevent this leakage, DRAM requires an external memory-refresh circuit that periodically rewrites the data in the capacitors, restoring them to their original charge.
让我们稍微详细解释一下。由于电容器上的电荷会逐渐泄漏，因此需要电源来保持数据。这意味着如果没有干预，芯片上的数据很快就会丢失。为了防止这种泄漏，DRAM 需要一个外部存储器刷新电路，定期重写电容器中的数据，将它们恢复到原始电荷状态。

To solve the problems with density and power leakage, a few SCM technologies are in development: PCM (phase-change memory), STT-RAM (spin-transfer torque random access memory), and ReRAM (resistive random access memory). One nice aspect of all these technologies is their ability to function as MLCs (multilevel cells). This means they can store more than one bit of information, compared with SLCs (single-level cells), which can store only one bit per memory cell, or element. Typically, a memory cell consists of one MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor). MLCs reduce the number of MOSFETs required to store the same amount of data as SLCs, making them denser or smaller to deliver the same amount of storage as technologies using SLCs. Let’s go over how each of these SCM technologies work.
为了解决密度和电力泄漏的问题，一些 SCM 技术正在开发中：PCM（相变存储器）、STT-RAM（自旋转移磁阻随机存取存储器）和 ReRAM（抗性随机存取存储器）。所有这些技术的一个良好方面是它们能够作为 MLC（多级单元）工作。这意味着它们可以存储多个信息位，而不像 SLC（单级单元）只能存储一个信息位。通常，一个存储单元包括一个 MOSFET（金属氧化物半导体场效应晶体管）。MLC 可以减少存储相同数据所需的 MOSFET 数量，使其比使用 SLC 技术的技术更密集或更小，以提供相同的存储量。让我们回顾一下这些 SCM 技术的工作原理。

Phase-change memory 相变存储器

PCM is similar to phase change for CD-RWs, described earlier. Its phase-change material is typically GST, or GeSbTe (germanium-antimony-tellurium), which can exist in two different states: amorphous and crystalline. The amorphous state has a higher resistance, denoting a 0, than the crystalline state, denoting a 1. By assigning data values to intermediate resistances, PCM can be used to store multiple states as an MLC (ieeexplore.ieee.org).
PCM 类似于前文描述的 CD-RW 的相变过程。它的相变材料通常是 GST（锗锑碲），可以存在两种不同的状态：无定形态具有较高的电阻，表示 0；结晶态具有较低的电阻，表示 1。通过将数据值分配给中间电阻，PCM 可以用作 MLC 来存储多种状态。

Spin-transfer torque random access memory 自旋转移力矩磁随机存储器

STT-RAM consists of two ferromagnetic, permanent magnetic layers separated by a dielectric, an insulator that can transmit electric force without conduction. It stores bits of data based on differences in magnetic directions. One magnetic layer, called the reference layer, has a fixed magnetic direction, while the other magnetic layer, called the free layer, has a magnetic direction that is controlled by passing current. For a 1, the magnetization direction of the two layers are aligned. For a 0, the two layers have opposing magnetic directions.
STT-RAM 由两层铁磁永久磁层分离，由介电材料隔开，介电材料可以传递电力而不传导电流。它根据磁方向的差异存储数据位。其中一层磁层称为参考层，其磁方向固定，而另一层磁层称为自由层，其磁方向由通电电流控制。对于 1，两个磁层的磁化方向是对齐一致的；对于 0，两个磁层的磁化方向是相反的。

Resistive random access memory 电阻式随机存取存储器

A ReRAM cell consists of two metal electrodes separated by a metal-oxide layer. This is similar to Masuoka’s original flash-memory design, where electrons would tunnel through the oxide layer and get stuck in the floating gate or vice versa. With ReRAM, however, the state of the cell is determined by the concentration of oxygen vacancy in the metal-oxide layer.
ReRAM 单元由两个金属电极通过金属氧化层分离。这类似于 Masuoka 的原始闪存设计，其中电子会穿过氧化层并被困在浮动栅或相反。然而，在 ReRAM 中，单元的状态是由金属氧化层中的氧空位浓度所确定的。

SCM downsides and upsides SCM 的优点和优点

While these SCM technologies are promising, they still have downsides. PCM and STT-RAM have high write latencies. PCM’s latencies are 10 times that of DRAM, while STT-RAM has 10 times the latencies of SRAM. PCM and ReRAM have a limit on write endurance before a hard error occurs, meaning a memory element gets stuck at a particular value (arxiv.org).
虽然这些 SCM（存储级别缓存）技术有前景，但仍然存在一些缺点。PCM（相变存储器）和 STT-RAM（自旋转移力矩磁随机存储器）具有较高的写入延迟。PCM 的延迟是 DRAM 的 10 倍，而 STT-RAM 的延迟是 SRAM 的 10 倍。PCM 和 ReRAM 在写入耐久性方面有限制，超出限制后会发生硬错误，意味着存储元素会固定（卡在）在某个值上。

In August 2015 Intel announced Optane, a product built on 3DXPoint, pronounced 3D cross-point (anandtech.com). Optane claims performance 1,000 times faster than NAND SSDs with 1,000 times the performance, while being four to five times the price of flash memory. Optane is proof that SCM is not just experimental. It will be interesting to watch how these technologies evolve.
2015 年 8 月，Intel 宣布了基于 3D XPoint 技术的 Optane 产品。Optane 声称比 NAND SSD 快 1000 倍，性能是 1,000 倍，并且价格是闪存的 4 到 5 倍。Optane 证明了 SCM 不仅仅是实验性的。观察这些技术的发展将会很有趣。

Helium hard disk drive (HHDD) Helium 硬盘驱动器 （HHDD）

An HHDD (helium hard disk drive) is a high-capacity HDD filled with helium and hermetically sealed during manufacturing. Like other hard disks, covered earlier, it is much like a record player with a rotating magnetic-coated platter. Typical HDDs would just have air inside the cavity, but that air causes an amount of drag on the spin of the platters.
HHDD（氦气硬盘驱动器）是一种高容量的硬盘驱动器，制造过程中充满氦气并密封。与其他硬盘驱动器类似，它非常像一个旋转的磁性涂层盘片的唱片机。典型的硬盘驱动器内部会有空气，但空气会对盘片的旋转产生阻力。

Helium balloons float, so we know helium is lighter than air. Helium is, in fact, one-seventh the density of air, therefore reducing the amount of drag on the spin of the platters, causing a reduction in the amount of energy required for the disks to spin. This is actually a secondary feature; the primary advantage of helium is that it allows for packing seven platters in the same form factor that would typically hold only five. Attempting this with air-filled drives would cause turbulence. If you recall the airplane-wing analogy from earlier, this ties in perfectly. Helium reduces drag, thus eliminating turbulence.
氦气比空气轻，因此氦气的密度只有空气的七分之一，从而减少了对盘片旋转的阻力，降低了盘片旋转所需的能量。这实际上是一个次要优点；主要优点是氦气允许在相同的外形因素下容纳七个盘片，而不是通常的五个。使用充满空气的驱动器进行这样的尝试会引起湍流。如果你记得之前的飞机机翼类比，这与之非常相符。氦气减少了阻力，从而消除了湍流。

As everyone knows, however, helium-filled balloons start to sink after a few days because the gas is escaping the balloons. The same could be said for these drives. It took years before manufacturers had created a container that prevented the helium from escaping the form factor for the life of the drive. Backblaze found that HHDDs had a lower annualized error rate of 1.03 percent, while standard hard drives resulted in 1.06 percent. Of course, that is so small a difference, it is hard to conclude much from it (backblaze.com).
然而，众所周知，氦气气球在几天后会开始下沉，因为气体会从气球中泄漏。氦气硬盘驱动器也有类似的问题。制造商花了多年时间才开发出一种可以在整个驱动器寿命期间防止氦气泄漏的容器。Backblaze 发现，HHDD 的年化故障率为 1.03%，而标准硬盘驱动器的年化故障率为 1.06%。当然，这个差异非常小，很难得出太多结论。

A helium-filled form factor can have an HDD encapsulated that uses PMR, or it could contain an MAMR (microwave-assisted magnetic recording) or HAMR (heat-assisted magnetic recording) drive. Any magnetic storage technology can be paired with helium instead of air. In 2014 HGST (Hitachi Global Storage Technologies) combined two cutting-edge technologies into its 10TB HHDD that used host-managed SMR (shingled magnetic recording).
氦气填充的硬盘驱动器可以封装使用 PMR 的 HDD，也可以包含 MAMR（微波辅助磁记录）或 HAMR（热辅助磁记录）技术的驱动器。任何磁性存储技术都可以与氦气配对，而不是空气。2014 年，HGST（日立全球存储技术公司）将两种尖端技术结合在其 10TB 的 HHDD 中，该硬盘驱动器使用了主机管理的 SMR（叠瓦磁记录）。

Shingled magnetic recording 叠瓦磁记录

PMR, covered earlier, was SMR’s predecessor. In contrast to PMR, SMR writes new tracks that overlap part of the previously written magnetic track, which in turn makes the previous track narrower, allowing for higher track density. The technology’s name stems from the fact that the overlapping tracks resemble roof shingles.
前面提到的 PMR 是 SMR 的前身。与 PMR 相比相比有所不同。PMR 会在全新的磁道上进行写入，而 SMR 则会使新写入的磁道部分重叠于先前写入的磁道，导致先前的磁道变窄，从而实现更高的磁道密度。这种技术的名称源于重叠的磁道形似屋顶瓦片。

SMR results in a much more complex writing process, since writing to one track winds up overwriting an adjacent track. This doesn’t come into play when a disk platter is empty and data is sequential. Once you are writing to a series of tracks that already contain data, however, this process is destructive to existing adjacent data. If an adjacent track contains valid data, then it must be rewritten. This is quite similar to NAND flash, as covered earlier.
SMR 会导致写入过程更为复杂，因为写入一个磁道会覆盖相邻的磁道。当磁盘盘片为空且数据是顺序写入时，这个过程不会影响到其他数据。然而，一旦开始写入已包含数据的一系列磁道，这个过程就会对现有的相邻数据造成破坏。如果相邻的磁道包含有效数据，那么就必须对其进行重写。这与之前讨论过的 NAND 闪存非常相似。

Device-managed SMR devices hide this complexity by having the device firmware manage it, resulting in an interface like any other hard disk you might encounter. Host-managed SMR devices, on the other hand, rely on the operating system to know how to handle the complexity of the drive.
设备管理的 SMR 设备通过设备固件管理来隐藏这种复杂性，从而呈现出与其他硬盘相似的接口。而主机管理的 SMR 设备则依赖操作系统来处理驱动器的复杂性。

Seagate started shipping SMR drives in 2013, claiming a 25 percent greater density than PMR (anandtech.com).
Seagate 从 2013 年开始出货 SMR 驱动器，声称比 PMR 提高了 25% 的密度。

Microwave-assisted magnetic recording 微波辅助磁记录

MAMR is an energy-assisted magnetic storage technology—like HAMR, which is covered next—that uses 20- to 40-GHz frequencies to bombard the disk platter with a circular microwave field. This lowers its coercivity, meaning that the magnetic material of the platter has a lower resistance to changes in magnetization. As already discussed, changes in magnetization of a region of the platter are used to denote a 0 or a 1, so since the platter has a lower resistance to changes in magnetization, the data can be written more densely. The core of this new technology is the spin torque oscillator used to generate the microwave field without sacrificing reliability.
MAMR（微波辅助磁记录）是一种能量辅助的磁存储技术，类似于下文将要讨论的热辅助磁记录（HAMR）。它使用 20 至 40GHz 的频率向磁盘盘片发射圆形微波场。这会降低盘片的矫顽力，意味着盘片的磁性材料对磁化变化的抵抗力降低。如前所述，盘片上的区域磁化变化用于表示 0 或 1，因此由于盘片对磁化变化的抵抗力降低，数据可以更密集地写入。这一新技术的核心是自旋矩阵振荡器，用于在不牺牲可靠性的情况下生成微波场。

Western Digital, also known as WD, unveiled this technology in 2017 (storagereview.com). Toshiba followed shortly after in 2018 (theregister.co.uk). While WD and Toshiba are busy pursuing MAMR, Seagate is betting on HAMR.
Western Digital，即 WD，在 2017 年推出了这项技术。随后，东芝在 2018 年也紧随其后。当 WD 和东芝忙于追求 MAMR 时，西捷科技则专注于热辅助磁记录技术（HAMR）。

Heat-assisted magnetic recording 热辅助磁记录

HAMR is an energy-assisted magnetic storage technology for greatly increasing the amount of data that can be stored on a magnetic device, such as an HDD, by using heat delivered by a laser to help write data onto the surface of a platter. The heat causes the data bits to be much closer together on the platter, which allows greater data density and capacity.
HAMR 是一种能量辅助磁存储技术，通过使用激光传递的热量帮助将数据写入盘片表面，从而大大增加可存储在磁性设备（如 HDD）上的数据量。热量使数据位在盘片上靠得更近，从而实现更高的数据密度和容量。

This technology is quite difficult to achieve. A 200-milliwatt laser heats a teensy area of the region to 750 degrees F (400 degrees C) quickly before writing the data, while not interfering with or corrupting the rest of the data on the disk (fstoppers.com). The process of heating, writing the data, and cooling must be completed in less than a nanosecond. These challenges required the development of nano-scale surface plasmons, also known as a surface-guided laser, instead of direct laser-based heating, as well as new types of glass platters and heat-control coatings to tolerate rapid spot-heating without damaging the recording head or any nearby data, and various other technical challenges that needed to be overcome (seagate.com).
热辅助磁记录（HAMR）是一种能量辅助的磁存储技术，旨在通过激光提供的热量来大幅增加磁设备（如硬盘驱动器）的数据存储量。激光会快速将 200 毫瓦的能量集中在一个小区域，使其温度迅速升至 750 华氏度（400 摄氏度），然后在写入数据之前迅速冷却，以避免干扰或损坏盘片上其他区域的数据。这个加热、写入数据和冷却的过程必须在不到一纳秒的时间内完成。这些挑战要求开发纳米级表面等离子体，也称为表面引导激光，而不是直接基于激光加热，以及能够快速耐受点状加热而不损坏磁头或附近数据的新型玻璃盘片和热控涂层等各种技术挑战。

Seagate first demonstrated this technology, despite many skeptics, in 2013 (computerworld.com). It started shipping the first drives in 2018 (blog.seagate.com).
尽管面临许多怀疑者，Seagate 在 2013 年首次展示了这项技术，并于 2018 年开始出货首批驱动器。

End of tape, rewind 磁带结束，倒带

This article started off with the state of the art in storage media in 1951 and concludes after looking at the future of storage technology. Storage has changed a lot over time—from paper tape to metal tape, magnetic tape, rope memory, spinning disks, optical disks, flash, and others. Progress has led to faster, smaller, and more performant devices for storing data.
本文从 1951 年的存储介质现状开始，最后展望了存储技术的未来。存储技术随着时间的推移发生了很大变化 —— 从纸带到金属带、磁带、绳式存储、旋转盘、光盘、闪存等。技术进步使得数据存储设备变得更快、更小、性能更好。

Comparing NVMe to the 1951 Uniservo metal tape shows that NVMe can read 486,111 percent more digits per second. Comparing NVMe to the Zip disks of 1994, you see that NVMe can read 213,623 percent more digits per second.
将 NVMe 与 1951 年的 Uniservo 金属磁带比较，NVMe 每秒可以读取的数字比 Uniservo 金属带多 486,111%。将 NVMe 与 1994 年的 Zip 磁盘比较，NVMe 每秒可以读取的数字比 Zip 磁盘多 213,623%。

One thing that remains true is the storing of 0s and 1s. The means by which that is done vary greatly. I hope the next time you burn a CD-RW with a mix of songs for a friend, or store home videos in an optical disc archive (yup, you heard that right (pro.sony)), you think about how the nonreflective bumps translate to a 0 and the reflective lands of the disk translate to a 1. If you are creating a mixtape on a cassette, remember that those are closely related to the Datasette used in the Commodore PET. Lastly, remember to be kind and rewind (this is a tribute to Blockbuster, but there are still open formats for using tape today (wikipedia.org)).
一个不变的事实是存储 0 和 1。实现这一点的方式千差万别。希望下次为朋友刻录 CD-RW 混音歌曲或将家庭视频存档到光盘时（没错，你没听错），你能想一想非反射凸起如何转化为 0，而盘片的反射区域如何转化为 1。如果你要在磁带上创建混音带，请记得它们与 Commodore PET 上使用的 Datasette 密切相关。最后，请记得小心地倒带（这是向 Blockbuster 致敬，但今天仍然有开放的格式用于磁带存储）。

斐夷所非 注

注 1. Blockbuster

Blockbuster LLC（前称：Blockbuster Entertainment Inc. 中文名 百视达）是一家美国家庭影视娱乐供应商。



最初只是出租录像，后来发展到了流媒体、随选视讯和影院等行业。 在其 2004 年发展高峰时段，拥有超过六万名员工和九千家商店。

现在大部分店铺已经关闭。在这里，“Blockbuster” 可以被解释为一种怀旧和怀念过去的文化符号，特别是与录像带相关的回忆。

注 2. Linear Tape-Open ( LTO，线性开放式磁带 )

Linear Tape-Open ，也称为 LTO Ultrium 格式，是一种用于备份、数据存档和数据传输的磁带数据存储技术。它最初是在 1990 年代后期开发的，作为当时可用的专有磁带格式的开放标准替代方案。

推出后，LTO 迅速定义了超级磁带市场领域，并一直是最畅销的超级磁带格式。截至 2021 年的最新一代 LTO-9 可以容纳一个墨盒有 18 TB 。

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via: Jessie Frazelle， acmqueue， August 25, 2020