Chap.3 总结《CL: An Introduction》 (Vyvyan Evans)

CHAPTER 3: Universals and variation in language, thought and experience

• Languages can exhibit radically different conceptual organization and structure. In other words, cross-linguistic variation is widespread.
  At the same time, certain common patterns across language exist. These common patterns are known as linguistic universals.

1. Universals in linguistics

-Formal linguistics treat universals as resulting from primitive concepts or mechanisms.
-Cognitive linguists argue that there are universal tendencies.Constraints including the nature of human embodiment, Gestalt principles and the nature of human categorization collectively constitute a conceptualizing capacity common to all human. Cross-linguistic differences point to conceptual difference; however, these distinct conceptual systems emerge from the common conceptualizing capacity.

2. Universals in cognitive linguistics

• embodiment: we share similar cognitive and neuro-anatomical architectures, it follows that human experience, and the nature of possible conceptual systems that relate to this experience, will be constrained. 由于相似的生理特征，这些相似的生理特征限制着人类体验的本质/本性也必然是类似的。
• environment: the nature of the environment humans inhabit has a number of basic commonalities. 人类生活的环境有一些基本的相似特征。
• experience: generally there are two categories of human experience – sensory experience and introspective/subjective experience. 人的体验都可以分为：感知体验和内省体验。
• perception: 人类在感知世界时运用的感知机制有相似之处。这些机制/原则也限制了人类可能获得的经验，从而使这些经验具有相似之处。
  The perceptual mechanisms that facilitate our experience are known as Gestalt psychology or Gestalt principles. Below are some of the most important Gestalt principles. 这些感知世界的机制也被称为格式塔原则，下面是一些重要的格式塔原则。
  -Perception: figure-ground principle (A figure is an entity that possesses a dominant place. The figure stands out against the ground.)
  -Perception: principle of proximity (Elements in a scene that are closer together will be seen as belonging together in one group.)
  -Perception: principle of similarity (Entities in a scene that share visual characteristics will be perceived as belonging together in one group.)
  -Perception: principle of closure (Incomplete figures are often completed by the perceptual system.)
  -Perception: principle of continuity (Human perception has a preference for continuous figures.)
  -Perception: principle of smallness (Smaller entities tend to be more readily perceived as figures than larger entities.)
  The Gestalt principles entail that the world is not objectively given. 这些格式塔原则也证明了，我们描述的现实世界不是完全客观的现实世界。（SEE ALSO Chap.2: 2)
• categorization

3. Examples

• Common cross-linguistic patterns in the domain of SPACE and TIME (详见书籍)
• Cross-linguistic variation in the domain of SPACE and TIME (详见书籍)
• Conclusion: Despite some fundamental cross-linguistic similarities in the linguistic representation of space and time, there is nevertheless considerable cross-linguistic variation.

4. About Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

The strong version of this hypothesis is rejected by most linguist, there is some evidence in favour of the weak version. And cognitive linguistics is consistent with the weak version. (According to cognitive linguists, language not only reflects conceptual structure, but can also give rise to conceptualization.)