Chap.14 总结《CL: An Introduction》 (Vyvyan Evans)

Chap. 14: What is a cognitive approach to grammar?

• Cognitive linguists who study grammar typically have a diverse set of foci and interests. 认知语法领域的研究者有许多研究兴趣。
  -Some are primarily concerned with mapping out the cognitive mechanisms and principles that might account for the properties of grammar. 一些研究者主要研究某些语法性质的认知机制和认知原则。
  -Others are primarily concerned with characterising and delineating the linguistic units or constructions that populate a grammar.另外有些研究者主要关注形成语法的语言单位，或者成为构式。
  -And cognitive linguists who focus on grammatical change set out to explain the process of grammaticalisation. 最后，关注语法变化的研究者也会研究语法化的过程。
  -Each of these paths of investigation are united by certain shared assumptions. 这些研究思路都受同样指导思想的指导。

Guiding assumptions 指导思想

• The symbolic thesis 象征性基础
  -It holds that the fundamental unit of grammar is a form-meaning pairing or symbolic unit. In Langacker’s terms, the symbolic unit has two poles: semantic pole (its meaning) and a phonological pole (its sound). 象征性基础认为，语法的基本单位是形义结合对，或成为象征性单位。在Langacker看来，象征性单位有两个支点，语义支点（其意义）和声音支点（其发音）。
  -Symbolic units can be expressed in different ways depending on the medium of communication, like in spoken language and in written language. 实际上，依据交流介质的不同，象征性单位可以通过不同方式得到表达，如在口语中（通过声音表达）和在书面语中（通过书写形式来表达）。
  -The adoption of the symbolic thesis has an important consequence for a model of grammar: because the basic unit is the symbolic unit, meaning achieves central status in the cognitive model, then form cannot be studied independently of meaning. 象征性特征对语法模式有一个的重要影响：因为语法基本单位是象征性单位，因此在认知模型中，意义占据着核心地位，形式的研究无法脱离意义。
  -The idea that grammatical units are inherently meaningful is an important theme in cognitive approaches to grammar and gives rise to the idea of a lexicon-grammar continuum. 语法单位是具有意义的这一基本观点是认知语法研究中的一个重要主体，也暗含了，词汇-语法是一个连续体，而非对立点。
• The usage-based thesis 使用性基础
  -The usage-based thesis holds that the mental grammar of the speaker (his or her knowledge of language) is formed by the abstraction of symbolic units from situated instances of language use. 使用性基础认为，说话者的概念语法（语言知识）是通过抽象化具体情境中象征性单位的形成的。
  -An important consequence of adopting the usage-based thesis is that there is no principled distinction between knowledge of language and use of language. From this perspective, knowledge of language is knowledge of how language is used. 使用性基础意味着在语言知识和语言使用两者中没有严格界限，实际上，语言知识就是关于语言使用的知识。
• The architecture of the model 认知语法模型的基本架构
  -The grammar box represents the conventionalised knowledge of language in the mind of the speaker, and the usage box represents the usage event or utterance. In intuitive terms, a usage event consists of speech sounds and their corresponding interpretations, hence the two boxes labelled conceptualisation and vocalisation. 左侧"grammar"方框代表了储存在说话者大脑中的惯常化的语言知识，右侧"usage"方框代表了言语行为或言语。一般来说，言语行为由言语语音和对应的理解组成，在图中被标注为概念化和语音化。
  -The horizontal arrows represent coding links or correspondences between the conventionalised units of knowledge in the mind of the speaker and the (vocal or conceptual) systems they interact with in instances of situated language use. The vertical arrows represent symbolic links which unite sound and meaning, or knowledge of sound and meaning. 水平箭头代表大脑中惯常化的知识单位与实际使用情境中的语音或概念系统的对应。垂直箭头代表语音和意义之间的联系，或称为语音知识和意义知识的联系。
  

Distict cognitive approaches to grammar 认知语言的不同研究路径

• The Conceptual Structuring System Model 概念结构系统模型
  -Developed by Leonard Talmy, this model is distinguished by its emphasis on the qualitative distinction between grammatical (closed-class) and lexical (open-class) elements. These two forms of linguistic expression represent two distinct conceptual subsystems, the lexical subsystem and the grammatical subsystem. This cognitive model of grammar focuses more on the closed-class system. 概念结构系统模型强调语法（封闭类）成分和词汇（开放性）成分的区分。这两种语言表达代表了两种不同的概念系统，词汇系统和语法系统。概念结构系统模型主要关注封闭类系统。
• Cognitive Grammar 认知语法
  -Langacker’s approach attempts to model the cognitive mechanisms and principles that motivate and license the formation and use of symbolic units of varying degrees of complexity. Langacker的认知语法理论尝试探寻激发和促进不同象征性成分的认知机制和认知原则。
• Constructional approaches to Grammar 构式语法
  -There are four main varieties of constructional approach to grammar. The first is the theory called Construction Grammar, developed by Charles Fillmore. It holds that grammar can be modelled in terms of constructions rather than words and rules. Other three varieties will be includes are: (1) Goldberg’s Construction Grammar; (2) Radical Construction Grammar; (3) Embodied Construction Grammar.
• Cognitive approaches to grammaticalisation 认知语法化
  -Cognitive approaches to grammaticalisation are concerned with the process of language change whereby grammatical or closed-class elements evolve gradually from the open-class system. There are also considerable literature in this area, and we restrict ourselves to three representative types of approach: (1) metaphorical extension approaches; (2) Invited Inferencing Theory; (3) the subjectification model developed by Langacker. 认知语法化的研究关注语言形式从开放性类别（系统）逐渐演变为封闭性类别（系统）的过程。关于认知语法化的研究也有许多尝试。这里列出了三项具有代表性的：（1）隐喻延伸法；（2）Invited Inferencing Theory；（3）Langacker的主观化模型。
  
  

Grammatical terminology 认知语法术语

• Grammar 语法
  The term grammar has a number of different meanings. It can be used to refer to the psychological system that represents a speaker’s knowledge of language. “语法”有数种不同的意义。其中一种用法是，语法可以用来指称代表说话者语言知识的心理系统。
• Units of grammar 语法单位
  morpheme——word——phrase——sentence
  smallest grammatical unit largest grammatical unit
• word classes 词语类别 （parts of speech 词性）
• syntax 句法
  The term syntx relates to the structure of phrases and sentences, the larger grammatical units. A clause consists of a single subject and a single predicate, while a sentence may be more complex. 句法与词组和句子的结构相关。一个clause中包含一个主语和一个谓语，而一个sentence 的结构可能会更加复杂。
• Grammatical functions 语法功能
  Subject and object are types of grammatical function. In other words, these terms describe what phrases do in a sentence rather than describing what phrases are in terms of their category (NP, VP and so on). 主语和宾语是两种语法功能。语法功能描述的是词组在句子中的作用，而不是描述词组所属的范畴性质。
• Agreement and case （人称、性、数等的）一致和格
  -The term agreement describes the morphological marking of a grammactical unit to signal a particular grammatical relationship with another unit. Agreement involves grammatical features like person, number and gender and may interact with case.
  -Case is the grammatical feature that flags the grammatical function of a word or phrase within a sentence.

Characteristics of the cognitive approach to grammar 认知语法研究的特征

• The ultimate objective of a cognitive theory of grammar is to model speaker knowledge of language in ways that are consistent with the two key commitments. From this perspective, language emerges from general cognitive mechanisms and processes. 认知语法研究的终极目的是提出一个与认知语言学两大承诺相符的模型。这样看来，语言是从普遍认知机制和过程中产生的。

Grammatical knowledge: a structured inventory of symbolic units 语法知识：象征性单位的结构性列表

• A central claim in some cognitive approaches is that knowledge of language is represented in the mind of the speaker as an inventory of symbolic units. It is only once an expression has been used sufficiently frequently and has become entrenched that it becomes a unit. A unit is a symbolic entity stored and accessed as a whole, instead of built compositionally by the language system. Furthermore, the symbolic units represented in the speaker’s grammar are conventional. The conventionality of a linguistic unit relates to the idea that linguistic expression become part of the grammar of a language by virtue of being shared among members of a speech community. Thus conventionality is a matter of degree. 在认知语法的一些研究中，一个关键论点即是：语言知识是存在于人脑中的一系列象征性单位（或称为象征性列表）。一个语言表达只有经过频繁使用才能够具有稳固不变的地位，才能够称为一个象征性单位。象征性单位是作为整体参与储存和识别的，而不是被语言系统一部分一部分组合而成的。除此之外，存在于说话者语法中的象征性单位是惯常的。一个语言单位的惯常性是指，该语言表达由于被某语言群体成员共同使用从而成为语言语法的一部分。惯常性具有不同的程度。
• Symbolic units can be simplex or complex in terms of their symbolic structure. A symbolic unit is simplex if it does not contain smaller symbolic units as subparts. 从象征结构来看，象征性单位可能是简单的，也可能是复杂的。如果某象征性结构内部不包含更小的象征性单位，那么它就是一个简单象征性单位。
• The contents of the inventory are not stored in a random way. The inventory is structured, and this structure lies in the relationships that hold between the units. Some units form subparts of other units which in turn form subparts of other units. This set of interlinking and overlapping relationships is conceived as a network. There are three kinds of relation that hold between members of the network: (1) symbolisation (the symbolic links between semantic pole and phonological pole); (2) categorisation (like the link between the expressions rose and flower); (3) integration (the relation between parts of a complex symbolic structure like flower-s). 象征型单位列表的内容不是随意储存在大脑中的。该列表是有结构的，列表的结构就是各象征性单位之间的关系。一些象征性单位是其他象征性单位的组成部分，这些其他象征性单位进一步也是更大的象征型单位的组成部分。这种相互连接的关系被理解为一种网络。网络成分之间存在三种关系：（1）象征关系（即语义支点和语音支点之间的象征性关系）；（2）范畴关系（如“玫瑰”和“花”之间的关系）；（3）整合关系（如复杂象征型单位各组成成分之间的关系，如flower-s）。
• The content requirement 象征型单位列表的内容：
  -phonological, semantic and symbolic units 语音、语义和象征性单位；
  -the relations that hold between them 以上这些单位之间的关系；
  -shemas that represent these units 能代表这些单位的图式。
  This requirement excludes abstract rules from the model. Instead, knowledge of linguistic patterns is conceived in terms of shemas. 象征性列表的内容不包括抽象规则。语言模式的知识被视为图式。

Features of the closed-class subsystem 封闭性下层系统的特征

• Closed-class elements may be overt or implicit. Overt elements can be bound or free. Implicit elements have no phonetic realisation but represent speaker knowledge of grammatical categories. 封闭性系统中的成分可能具有显性形式，也可能是隐性的。显性成分可能是受限(bound)或是自由(free)的。隐性成分不具有语音上的实现，但仍代表着说话人了解的语法范畴（如名词动词，主语宾语等）的知识。
• The closed-class subsystem is semantically restricted and has a structuring function, while the open-class system is semantically unrestricted and has the function of providing conceptual content. 封闭性系统在语义上是受限的（如NUMBER只对应单数、复数、多数的概念，但不对应百万、27等概念），具有结构性（提供结构的）功能；开放性系统在语义上是开放的，具有提供概念内容的功能。
• Grammatical categories display topological rather than Euclidean properties. This means that the meaning encoded by closed-class elements remains constant despite contextual differences. 语法范畴具有拓扑结构（而非欧几里得结构），这就是说，封闭性成分的含义除了受语境影响，是大体上保持不变的。
• The function of the closed-class system is to provide a scaffold or a skeleton over which elements from the open-class system are laid. If we exchange the content words for different ones, we can end up with a description of an entirely different situation but the shematic meaning provided by the closed-class elements remains the same. 封闭性系统的功能是提供一个结构框架，让开放性系统中的成分能够有所依。如果我们将某句中的内容性词语更换，我们会得到一个完全不同的情境，但封闭性成分传达的图式性含义仍然是保持不变的。
• Talmy points out that there is not a clear-cut distinction between open- and closed- class elements with respect to the kinds of concepts they encode. 同时，从它们编码的概念来看，在开放性成分和封闭性成分之间没有完全的切分。

Schemas and instances 图式和例示

• The characterisation of linguistic units as symbolic units is not restricted to the content system but also applies to the grammatical system. In other words, grammatical units are also seen as form-meaning pairings. So there is no need to posit a sharp boundary in the grammar between open-class and closed-class units. Instead, specificity versus schematicity of meaning can be viewed as the poles of a continuum. 实义系统和语法系统的语言单位都是象征性单位。换句话说，语法单位也是形式-意义对应体。所以在开放性词类和封闭性词类之间没有严格界限。意义的具体性和图式性可以被看做一个连续体上的两个点。
• The inventory of symbolic units is organised by schema-instance relations. A schema is a symbolic unit that emerges from a process of abstraction over more specific symbolic units called instances. The relationship between a schema and the instances from which it emerges is the shema-instance relation. This relationship is hierarchical in nature. It is important to point out that the schema-instance relation is not restricted to symbolic units. 象征型单位列表内部存在图式-例示关系。图式是一个从数个具体象征性单位中抽象出来的象征性单位，这种关系被称为图式-例示关系。这种关系是具有层次性的。同时，图式-例示关系不仅仅体现在象征性单位之间。

Sanctioning and grammaticality 允准和语法合法性

• Any model of grammar must account for how speakers know what counts as a well-formed or grammatical utterance in the language. In the cognitive approach, well-formedness is accounted for on the basis of conventionality. 任何关于语法的理论都必须要要回答一个问题：在一个语言中，什么样的表达是合乎语法的？在认知语法的研究中，我们用惯常性来解释合法性。
• The cognitive model captures generalisations and defines well-formedness on the basis of a categorisation process. If the structure of an utterance produced by a speaker can be categorised as an instance of an existing schema, it is well-formed. Langacker uses the term sanction to refer to this categorisation process. Because well-formedness is is conceived in terms of conventioanlity and conventionality is a matter of degree, it follows that well-formedness is also a matter of degree. 认知语法模型着眼于归纳，从范畴化过程来定义合法性。如果说话者某言语的结构可以被归为已存在的图式的范畴之中，那么该言语就是合法的。Langacker用“允准(sanction)”来描述这个范畴化过程。因为合法性是用惯常性来描述的，而惯常性是具有程度的，因此合法性也是具有程度的。