Chap.16 总结《CL: An Introduction》 (Vyvyan Evans)

Chap. 16: Cognitive grammar-word classes

-In this chapter we explore Langacker’s theory of Cognitive Grammar in more detail. 本章更深入的介绍了Langacker的认知语法理论。
-Symbolic units can be minimal or simplex, or complex to varying degrees. Any unit having complex symbolic structure is called a construction in Langacker’s theory. In other words, Langacker does not refer to simplex symbolic units as construction. There is some overlap between words and constructions in Langacker’s model (in that complex words made of more than one morphemes count as constructions). 象征性单位可能是简单的，也可能是复杂的。具有复杂结构的象征性单位被称为构式。换句话说，简单的象征性单位不是构式。在“单词“和”构式“间存在重叠部分，比如由多个语素构成的单词是属于构式的。

Word classes: linguistic categorization 词类：语言范畴

• -Base: the scope of predication of a linguistic expression
  -Profile: the profile is what the expression designates from within that base
  -Symbolization: the link between the phonological and semantic poles of a linguistic unit
  -Coding: the link between a linguistic unit and a speech event
  -Closed-class expressions, just as conceptual categories relating to content words, have fuzzy boundaries. And also, while the closed closed-class resistant to change, they are not immune to it. 封闭性表达，同实词对应的概念范畴一样，具有fuzzy boundaries。同时，虽然封闭性表达被认为是不变的，但其也并非完全不变的。
• Langacker adopts the position that semantic characterizations of the major word classes are possible. The crux of his proposal is that all nouns and verbs have a schematic semantic characterization, and these characterizations are universal. Love can be used as a noun and as a verb, it might be difficult to distinguish in terms of content meaning, they do encode different meanings because they encode different construals of the scene. Langacker认为，通过语义来划分主要词类的做法是可行的。他认为，所有的名词和动词都有图式性的意义，这些意义是普遍相同的(universal)。比如，love可以用作名词也可以用作动词，虽然看上去很难区分，但其作为动词和作为名词的意义是不同的，因为它们体现了对场景的不同建构。

Nominal predications: nouns 名词性陈述：名词

• Langacker views meaning in terms of a continuum ranging from the highly specific to the highly schematic. In this aspect, it is possbile to give a semantic characterisation of the noun class: Langacker认为意义是一个从高度具体到高度抽象的连续体。从这个方面来看，我们可以给出一个名词类别的语义方面的定义：
  a. A noun designates a region in some domain. 一个名词指称某个概念域中的某个区域。
  b. A count noun designates a bounded region in some domain. 一个可数名词指称某个概念域中的某个有界区域。
  Moreover, some nouns evoke a combination of domains. 此外，有些名词能够激发一系列概念域的联系。

Bounding 界限

• Firstly, bounding must occur within the relevant domain. 界限是体现在相对的概念域中的。
• Secondly, bounding does not necessarily entail sharp boundaries. (Some count nouns like season designate regions with fuzzy boundaries.) 界限间不一定有明确的界线。
• Thirdly, bounding is often a function of construal rather than of objective reality. 界限通常是出于建构的，而非出于客观事实。
• Finally, the term region must defined as a set of interconnected entities. 用来描述名词类别的“区域”必须是由一系列相互联系的实体构成的。
• 根据以上的信息，我们可以总结出count nouns和mass nouns的语义性定义：
  a. A count noun designates a region that is bounded within the scope of predication in its primary domain. 在其陈述的范围内，可数名词指称的区域是有界的。
  b. A mass noun designates a region that is not specifically bounded within the scope of predication it its primary domain. 在其陈述的范围内，不可数名词指称的区域是没有具体界限的。(This means that the regions designated by mass nouns can be externally bounded. 这也就是说，在陈述范围以外，不可数名词有可能被建构为客观有界的。）

Homogeneity versus heterogeneity 同质性vs异质性

• Homogeneity relates to whether a region consists of entities that are all alike (like oxygen or water), or entities that are dissimilar (like bicycle). 同质性和异质性的区别在构成某区域的实体是相同的还是不同的。
• While the entities that constitute the regions designated by mass nouns are typically homogenous, the entites that constitute the regions designated by count nouns are typically heterogeneous. 一般来说，由不可数名词组成的区域内的实体是同质的，由可数名词组成的区域内的实体是异质的。

Expansibility and contractibility versus replicability 延伸性和收缩性vs可复制性

• Expansibility and contractibility are properties of the regions designated by mass nouns. It follows that any subpart of the region designated by a mass noun is still an instance of that category. The property of expansibility and contractibility is interwoven with homogeneity and the absence of bounding. 延伸性和收缩性是由不可数名词指称的区域具有的性质。从延伸性和收缩性我们可以推断，该区域内的组成成分是该范畴的一个例示。延伸性和收缩性与同质性相关联，也与无界限的性质相关联。
• Replicability is interwoven with bounding, and is reflected in the linguistic system by the fact that count nouns can be counted and pluralised, and can co-occur with the indefinate article. 可复制性与有界限性相关联。体现在语言系统中，我们可以看到，可数名词能够被数，有复数形式，能够与不定冠词共现。

Abstractions

• Abstract nouns might also be characterised in terms of bounded/unbounded regions. For example, hope and happiness. Nouns like hope are called derverbal nominalisations. These are argued to have a PROCESS (action rather than matter) as their base, and encode an episode bounded in time by a beginning and a finish. 抽象名词也能够被分为有界限的和无界限的，比如hope和happiness。hope一类的名词被称为从动词派生来的名词化成分(deverbal nominalisations)。这一类名词的base是某种过程（PROCESS)，即，是动作而非事件。它们是在时间尺度上有界的一小段，有开始，有结束。
• Langacker also compares the count noun jump with the mass noun jumping. The count noun profiles a single episode of the process that makes up its base, while the mass noun, because it is unbounded in time, gives rise to a generic reading. Langacker还对比了可数名词jump和不可数名词jumping。可数名词jump指称了一个单独动作小段，将其作为自己的base；而不可数名词jumping，因为其在时间尺度上是无界限的，因此具有通指性理解(reading)。

To conclude:

• Entrenched patterns of use give rise to schemas, and the noun class schema is represented as: [[THING]/[…]]. Because this is a maximally general schema, the content of the phonological pole is unspecified. 根据Langacker的理论，常用的模式能够产生图式。名词类的图式可以表示为：[[THING]/[…]]。因为名词类别属于最广泛概括的图式，因此在图式表达中，语音级没有得到明确表达（需要在具体使用中填充）。

Nominal versus relational predications 名词性陈述vs关系性陈述

• Langacker summarises the difference between nominal and relational predications as follows: A nominal predication presupposes the interconnections among a set of conceived entities, and profiles the region thus established. On the other hand, a relational predication presupposes a set of entities, and profiles the interconnections among these entities. Langacker这样表述名词性陈述和关系型陈述的不同：名词性陈述以一系列实体之间的相互关系为基础，强调的是它们构成的认知域中的某个区域；而关系性陈述则以一系列实体为基础，强调的是它们之间的相互关系。
  比如group和together。
  
  To conclude, while nominal predications designate a region, relational profiles designate an interconnection, which typically involves two or more entities. 总的来说，名词性陈述指称一个区域，关系性陈述指称一种相互关系，通常是两个或多个实体之间的相互关系。
• According to Langacker, there is always an asymmetry between the interconnected entities, and this asymmetry relates to prominence, which in turn relates to the TR-LM organisation. 根据Langacker的理论，在相互联系的事件之间存在不对称性，这种不对称性又与显著性相关联，同时进一步影响了TR-LM组织结构。

Temporal versus atemporal relations 事件关系和非事件关系

• -Scanning is a type of cognitive processing that occurs in two distinct modes, summary scanning and sequential scanning. In the summary scanning, the stimulus is scanned cumulatively which gives rise to a static cognitive representation. Atemporal relations fall into this category. Scanning是一种认知过程，具有两种不同模式，总结型scanning和顺序型scanning。在总结型scanning中，被识别对象被累积识别，生成静态认知表征。非时间性关系就属于这一范畴。
  -But atemporal does not mean that the linguistic expression is prohibited from making reference to the domain of TIME. Instead, the term “atemporal” can be thought of as equivalent to static in time. For example, George is late. 但非时间性关系不意味着该语言表达不能涉及事件。而是我们可以将其理解为，“时间上静止的”。比如George is late一句。
• In the sequential scanning mode, the stimulus is scanned sequentially. Crucially, no two subparts of the resulting cognitive representation are the same, which gives rise to the cognitive representation with the status of process. This scanning mode is evoked by temporal relations. 在顺序型scanning中，被认知对象按照时间顺序被认知。认知表征结果中没有两个部分是一样的，这也就赋予了该认知表征以”过程(process)"的地位。
• Summary versus sequential scanning is a matter of construal, although some situations lend themselves more readily to one type of construal than the other. 总结型scanning和顺序型scanning的不同实际上是建构上的不同，但的确存在某些情境更适合某种构建方式，而非另一种。

Temporal relations: verbs 时间关系：动词

• Langacker characterises finite verb forms (PROCESS) in the following terms: A processual predication involves a continuous series of states, each of which profiles a relation; it distributes these states through a continuous span of conceived time.
  Simplex and complex temporal relations 简单时间关系和复杂时间关系
• Temporal relations can be divided into two subcategories: simple temporal relations and complex temporal relations. 时间关系可以进一步被分为两种：简单时间关系和复杂时间关系。
• a. Lily loves chocolate. [simplex]
  b. Lily is eating chocolate. [complex]
  Both examples involve temporal relations because they construe scenes that hold over a given span of time (here the time of speaking, hence the present tense). The difference between the two examples is that while a. designates a stative PROCESS, b. designates a dynamic PROCESS. a和b都是时间关系，因为它们构建的情境都在一定时间跨度内延续（在这里是说话的当场的时间，因此是现在时）。两者之间的不同是因为a指称了一个静态过程，b指称了动态过程。
  Stative means that the situation remains constant throught the time span, while dynamic means that the situations involves some change over time. Process that involves no internal change are therefore described as simple, while processes that involve internal change are described as complex. 静态过程意味着，在该时间跨度上，该情境保持不变；动态过程意味着，随着时间的推进会发生变化。内部不发生变化的时间关系是简单时间关系，内部发生变化的时间关系是复杂时间关系。
• As this discussion indicates, the TR-LM organisation that is evident in the structure of clauses emerges from the schematic TR-LM organisation that is part of the meaning of a verb, given that a verb expresses a relation. 可以看出，句子中的TR-LM结构是从动词的TR-LM结构中产生，动词的TR-LM结构是其本身就具有的意义，动词代表着某种关系。
• To conclude: the class schema for verbs is represented as: [[PROCESS]/[…]]. 总结一下，我们可以暂时将动词的图式表达为：[[PROCESS]/[…]]。

Atemporal relations非时间关系

• Unlike the nominal and temporal categories, each of which characterises a single word class, the atemporal relation subsumes a range of word classes. These classes have two properties in common. Firstly, they profile a RELATION rather than a THING and are thus distinct from nouns. Secondly, as we saw earlier, the relation they profile is atemporal in the sense that it is cumulatively scanned and gives rise to a cognitive representation static in time. 与名词性和时间性范畴都对应一种词性不同，非时间关系包括一系列词类。这些词类有两个共同点。其一，它们都描述一种关系，而非一种事物，也因此能够与名词区分开来。其二，与前文提到过的类似，它们描述的关系是总结型scanned，产生的概念表征在时间上是静止的。
• Simple and complex atemporal relations 简单时间关系和复杂时间关系
• The cumulatively scanned atemporal relation can also be simple or complex.
  总结型scanned的非时间关系可以是简单的也可以是复杂的。
• A simple atemporal relation designates a STATE. A complex atemporal relation encodes a complex static scene. 一个简单非时间关系指称一种状态。一个复杂非时间关系指称一个复杂的静止情境。
• Adjectives and adverbs形容词和副词
• Take “The rocker scientist is beautiful” as an example. In a relational predication, there is always a prominent participant (TR), and in this example, the LM is implicit in the relational predications themselves. We may paraphrase the sentence in terms of the scientist being “in a state of beauty”. In this sense, the scientist is the TR and the LM is “the state of beauty”.
• Adpositions 介词
• In “The letters in the sink.”, the preposition in profiles a spatial relation between the TR and the LM.
• Participles 分词
• Participles are verb forms like written and eating that cannot occur as the main verb in a sentence, but require an auxiliary verb.
• Participles are described as non-finite verb forms because they are not marked for tense.
• The fact that participles are non-finite means that they can only occur without an auxiliary verb in subordinate clauses, where they often perform a modifying function.
• In Langacker’s model, participles are derived from PROCESSES by the affixiation of the relevant morphonology.
• Infinitives 不定式
• Infinitives occur in two forms. The to-infinitive, which is restricted to occuring in embedded clauses in English. The bare infinitive, which occur after modal verbs and in imperative clauses.
• The infinitive is not marked for tense, like participles.
• To conclude: the schematic representation of the atemporal relation is: [[STATE]/[…]]. 总而言之，非时间关系的图式性表达是：[[STATE]/[…]]。

Class schemas

• In Langacker’s model, there are three major word classes:
  In (a), the circle represents the THING that a nominal predication designates. In (b), the ATEMPORAL RELATION is represented as a line conneecting TR and LM, which are part of the schematic representation of an ATEMPORAL RELATION. In ©, the TEMPORAL RELATION or PROCESS is also represented as a relation connecting TR and LM. The crucial difference between the ATEMPORAL RELATION(STATE) and the TEMPORAL RELATION(PROCESS) is that the latter is sequentially scanned.
  
  
• The diagram above summaries Langacker’s model of word classes.

Nominal grounding predications 名词语境化描述

• The closed classes are typically characterised not only by their relative resistance to change, but also by their lack of independent semantic content. While undeniably a closed class, many prepositions do have readily accessible semantic account. The question arises here is whether these categories can be integrated into the existing categories or whether they receive a special account. Given that the cognitive model views grammatical elements as part of the same continuum as the open class elements, we might expect an integrated account. 封闭性成分通常具有两个特点，一是不容易发生变化，二是缺乏独立语义内容。介词是无争议地属于封闭性词类，但许多介词都有可以直接理解的语义内容。那么这里的问题就是，这些范畴可以被整合进已有范畴中吗？还是需要对它们进行另外的解释？我们知道，认知模型认为语法成分同开放性成分一样，都出于一个连续体上，那么我们就可以尝试将这些范畴（语法成分）整合起来。

Determiners and quantifiers 限定词和数量词

• Determiners
  (1) Articles 冠词
  Articles can be definite (the) or indefinite (a, some). Notice: When the word some is used as an indefinite article, it is unstressed. Its stressed counterpart is a quantifier.
  (2) Demonstrative determiners 指称性限定词
  Demonstrative determiners are deitic expressions like this and that, both of which reflect for number.
  (3) Possesive determiners 所有性限定词
  These are expressions like my and your. In English, these reflect for number and person features of the possessor rather than the possessed.
  (4) Interrogative determiners 疑问限定词
  These are expressions like which, whose and what. These are used for asking questions.
• Quantifiers 数量词
  Quantifiers are expressions which quantify the noun in terms of number of amount.

Grounding 语境定位？

• Each speech event involves a ground, which consists of place and time of speaking, the participants in the speech event and the shared knowledge between them.
  任何一个言语行为都发生在一定的语境(ground)中，语境由时间、地点、参与者和参与者互相已知的信息组成。
• Grounding is the process whereby linguistic expressions are linked to the ground. And determiners are one example of a grammatical element that serves this function. According to Langacker, determiner ground nominal expressions.
  grounding 指的是语言表达暗示了语境的这种现象。限定词就是具有grounding功能的一种语法成分。Langacker认为，限定词能够暗示名词性表达的语境(ground)。
• For example, the demonstrative and possessive determiners encode spatial deixis and person deixis respectively. And quantifiers also perform a grounding function by profiling the number or amount of the entity out of a larger mass.
  比如，指称性和所有性限定词分别暗示了方位指称（语境）和人称指称（语境）。数量词也发挥着暗示语境的作用，其彰显了所描述实体的数量。
• Expressions that perform a grounding function are called grounding predications, but these are not viewed as a distinct word class. Instead, grounding predications are seen as schematic categories for the class that they interact with. In other words, the determiner or quantifier is represented not as a distinct category, but as a highly schematic noun phrase, inextricably linked to the category of nominal predications. This categorisation is consistent with the fact that the same determiner and quantifier forms can often function as pronouns.
  发挥了grounding作用的表达被称为grounding predications，但它们并不单独成为一个词类。grounding predications而是被认为属于它们与之互动的那个词类。换句话说，限定词或数量词不是一个单独的词类，而被归类为高度图示化的名词词组，与名词性描述具有错综复杂的关系。这种范畴分类结果也与实际情况中限定词和数量同经常用作代词的现状相一致。
• Langacker argues that the base of a grounding predication is a grounding relation, which is revealed by the fact that these expressions can be paraphrased in terms of atemporal relations which also reveal the schematic meaning associated with these closed-class elements.
  Langacker认为，grounding predication的base是grounding relation。grounding relation能够被paraphrase为非时间性关系(atemporal relations)，这些非时间性关系同时也表达了这些封闭性词类的图式性意义。
  如下图：
  
• Langacker argues that the difference between the determiner on the one hand and the atemporal relations that paraphrase it on the other hand is an issue of construal rather than conceptual content. While the atemporal relation makes explicit the ground, which makes the ground a matter of objective constural, the profile of the determiner is restricted to the grounded entity. In the latter case, then, the ground is implicit and a matter of subjective construal. Furthermore, although the base of a grounding predication is a relation, the grounding predication itself profiles a schematic grounded entity. When the grounding predication combines with a noun, the noun elaborates the grounded entity and contributes its content meaning to the NP.
  Langacker认为，限定词和用来解释限定词的非时间性关系的区别在与建构的不同，而非所描述的概念内容的不同。非时间性关系明显化语境(ground)，使其成为客观建构出来的对象。限定词描述的仅为语境化了的实体(grounded entity)。在后者中，语境被隐去，只属于主观建构。另外，虽然grounding predication的base是一种关系(relation)，grounding predication本身就给grounded entity提供了图式性意义(schematic)。当grounding predication与名词相结合时，名词给grounded entity提供了详细意义(elaboration)，为整个NP提供了实体意义(content meaning)。
• The schematic representation of a nominal grounding predication is: [[[GROUND]/[…]]/[[THING]/[…]]].
  名词语境化描述(nominal grounding predication)的图示化表达为：[[[GROUND]/[…]]/[[THING]/[…]]]。
• This schematic representation differs from the ones we have seen so far in its complexity. Because it represents a schematic phrase rather than a schematic word. 名词语境化描述的图示化表达与前面的几种都不太一样，因为实际上它表达了图示化的短语(phrase)而非图示化的词语(word)。
• Langacker将语言表达划分为两个大类：nominal predications和relational predications.
  根据上文，我们可以将传统划分的词类重新分类。
  Nouns: nominal predications;
  Finite verb forms: (temporal) relational predications;
  Adj., Adv., Adpositions and Non-finite verb forms: (atemproal) relational predications;
  Determiners and Quantifiers: schematic nominals or noun phrases.