Chap.10 总结《CL: An Introduction》 (Vyvyan Evans)

Chap.10: Word meaning and radial categories

• This chapter is to develop the approach taken to word meaning in cognitive semantics, known as cognitive lexical semantics, pioneered by Claudia Brugman and Geogre Lakoff. 本单元的主题是：认知词汇语义学。认知语义学的代表人物是Claudia Brugman and Geogre Lakoff。
  -Cognitive lexical semantics takes the position that lexical items (words) are conceptual categories: a word represents a category of distinct yet related meanings that exhibit typicality effects. 认知词汇语义学认为词语使概念范畴，一个词语代表了一个由多个相互关联又各自不同的意义组成的范畴，范畴内成员具有典型性特征。
  -In particular, Lakoff argued that lexical items represent the type of complex categories he calls radial categories. Lakoff将这些复杂范畴成为层级范畴。
  As such, word meanings are stored in the mental lexicon as highly complex structured categories of meanings or senses. 这样看来，词汇意义是通过结构高度复杂的意义范畴的形式储存在概念/心理词库中的。
• We will also consider a more recent development by Vyvyan Evans and Andrea Tyler, the theory of Principled Polysemy. 我们还会探讨认知词汇语义学的新进展，即原则性多义理论。

Polysemy as a conceptual phenomenon 多义现象是一种概念层面的现象

• Polysemy and homonymy: 一词多义和同形异义
  -Polysemy is the phenomenon whereby a lexical item is commonly associated with two or more meanings that appear to be related in some way. 一词多义中的这些词义在某种程度上是能够相互关联起来的。
  -Homonymy relates to two distinct words that happen to share the same form. But these senses are not only sychoronically unrelated but also historically unrelated. For example, the word bank. 同形异义中的词义不论共时还是历时来看都不相关。
• In formal linguistics, polysemy has generally been viewed as a surface phenomenon, emerging from monosemy. The monosemy view is widely held in formal lexical semantics and is adopted to ensure that lexical representation exhibits economy, an important concern for formal lexical semanticists. 形式语言学家认为一词多义由一词一义产生的表面形式。一词一义观在形式语言学中很流行，因为能够体现了语言的经济性。
• The position proposed by Claudia Brugman is that polysemy as a conceptual phenomenon should form the basis of a theory of word meaning. Claudia Brugman认为多义现象是一种概念层面的现象，是形成词汇意义理论的基础。

Words as radial categories 词语是层次范畴

• The radial category representing lexical concepts has the same structure, with the range of lexical concepts (or senses) organised with respect to a prototypical lexical concept or sense. This means that lexical conceptual categories have inner structure. 层次范畴意味着词汇概念都具有相同的结构。一系列词汇意义都被与原型意义连接起来构成结构。这也意味着词汇概念范畴具有内部结构。
• Radial categories are modelled in terms of a radiating lattice configuration. Each distinct sense is represented by a node. While all senses are related by virtue of belonging to the same conceptual category, arrows between nodes indicate a close relationship between senses. 如果用图画来表达，层次结构被描绘为具有层次的斜条结构。每个不同的意义是一个节点。一方面，所有的意义都被连接起来，同属一个概念范畴；另一方面，通过箭头直接相连的节点代表着意义间更亲密的关系。
  
• Central to this approach is the assumption that radial categories of senses are represented or instantiated in long-term memory. This means that senses associated with words are conventionalised. A radial category is not a device for generating distinct meanings from the central or prototypical sense, but a model of how distinct but related meanings are stored in semantic memory.
  这一观点的中心论点是，意义的层次范畴是储存在长时记忆中的、具体化的范畴。这就意味着，词语的意义是被惯例化的。这就是说，层次范畴不是一种产生新义的方式，而是储存一组相互关联但又各自不同的意义的方式。
• To explain how polysemy arises: 多义的产生
  Linguistic categories are structured by the same general cognitive mechanisms that structure non-linguistic conceptual categories. According to this view, less prototypical senses are derived from more prototypical senses by cognitive mechanisms that facilitate meaning extension, including conceptual metaphor and image schema transformations. These mechanisms result in the systematic extension of lexical categories resulting in meaning chains. This gives rise to polesemy: a semantic network for a single lexical item that consists of multiple related senses. 组织语言范畴结构的认知机制与组织非语言概念范畴结构的机制是一样的。借助认知机制（如概念隐喻和意象图式转化），促进意义延伸，使得不够原型的意义从更具原型性的意义演化而来。这些机制作用的结果是词汇语义范畴的系统化延伸，最后得到结果语义链。多义现象就是这样产生的，一个词汇单位的语义网络由多个相互关联的意义组成。

The full-specification approach （词义解释的）完整细化法

• To take the proposition over as an example: 以介词over为例
  -The prototypical sense of over is an image schema combining elements of both ABOVE and ACROSS. The distinct senses associated with over are structured with respect to this image schema which provides the category with its prototype structure. 介词over的原型意义是结合了“上”和“穿过”元素的意象图式。与over相关的不同意义都与该意象图式相关联起来，给整个范畴提供原型结构。
  -A number of further more detailed image schemas related to the central schema are developed by the addition of further information. The central schema for over has at least six distinct and closely related variants This model results in potentially vast proliferation of senses for each lexical item. 通过给中心图式增加信息，许多更具体/细节的意象图式得以产生。over的中心图式发展出了六个分别不同但各自相关的变体。通过该模型，每个词语单位产生了许多意义。
• Image schema transformations 意象图式转换
  -Lakoff argues that distinct senses can also be derived by virture of image schema transformations. Image shemas are dynamic representations that emerge from eobodied experience. Image schema transformations relate to the construal of a scene according to a particular perspective. 意象图式转换可能会引起不同意义的产生。意象图式是源于涉身体验的动态表征。从不同角度来建构某情景可能会引起意象图式的转换，进而引起不同意义的产生。
• Metaphorical extensions 隐喻延伸
  Metaphors allow the schemas to be extended metaphorically, providing a new meaning. 隐喻是图式得以延伸的一种方式，产生了新义。
• Problems with the full-specification approach 语义的完整细化法存在的问题
  -Polysemy and vagueness: the role of context: Lakoff’s full-specification model results in such a large number of distinct senses is that the model fails to distinguish between polysemy (distinct senses stored in memory) and vagueness (meaning filled in by context, like thing). It has been argued that this proliferation of senses results from a failure to take into account the role of context in dertermining meaning. 完整细化模型之所以会产生这么多不同的意义是因为这一模型无法/没有区分多义现象和语义空白现象。有人说，产生了这么多意义的原因是在确定意义时没有考虑语境的作用。
  -The polysemy fallacy: unconstrained methodology: The full-specification approach has been criticised for a lack of methodological constraints. In other words, there is no principled criteria for determining what counts as a distinct sense. This means that the polysemy results purely from the intuitions. Sandra argues that to view all context bound usages of a lexical item as instances of polysemy is to commit what he calls the polysemy fallacy. 完整细化法被认为缺乏划分不同意义的标准，这也就意味着多义可能只是基于直觉。有人把这种“将所有与语境相关的词语用法都等同于多义现象的个例”的做法看作是一种多义谬误。

The Principled Polysemy approach 原则性多义理论

• This approach is to development clear decision principles that fulfill two goals: (1) to determine what count as a distinct sense and thus distinguish between senses stored in semantic memory (polysemy) and context-dependent meanings constructed online (vagueness); (2) to establish the prototypical or central sense associted with a particular radial category. 该理论方法的目标是提出一系列明确的原则，一方面既要区分储存在语义记忆中的意义（多义现象）和即时生成的语境意义（语义空白现象）。

Distinguishing between senses（略）

• 以over为例

Establishing the prototypical sense

• 以over为例
• Tyler and Evans suggest four types of linguistic evidence that can be relied upon to provide a more objective means of selecting a central sense:
  -earliest attested meaing: the historically earliest sense.
  -predominance in the sementic network: the central sense will be the one most frequently involved in or related to the other distinct sense.
  -relations to other prepositions.
  -ease of predicting sense extensions: the greater the ease of prediction, the more central the sense.

Beyond prepositions

• This approach is applicable to all lexical classes. There is a disscussion of two lexical items from other word classes: the noun time and the verb fly.

The importance of context for polysemy 语境对多义现象的重要性

• Word meanings, while relatively stable, are always subject to context. Polysemy is often a matter of degree and exhibits gradability due to contextual influence.
• Alan Cruse identified a number of ways in which context affects the nature of polysemy. Here we discuss three of them.
  -Usage context: subsenses: Subsenses do not qualify as fully distinct senses because they require specific kinds of context in order to induce them. They polysemy associated with the lexical item appears to be heavily dependent upon usage context. 使用（情境）语境
  -Sentential context: facets: A facet is a sense that is due to the part-whole structure of an entity, and is selected by a specific sentential context. The distinctions between facets only arise in certain sentential contexts. (Observe that it is sentential context rather than context of use that induces a particular facet.) However, the distinction between facets can disappear in certain contexts. 句子（上下文）语境
  -Knowledge context: ways of seeing: The kind of context we will consider here is knowledge context. Each individual has different experiences entails that each individual also has different mental representations relating to their experience of particular entities. This creates an encyclopaedic knowledge context that can influence how words are interpreted. This phenomenon is called ways of seeing. 百科知识语境
• To conclude, language use involves a complex interaction between polysemym contextual factors and encyclopaedic knowledge.