Chap.9 总结《CL: An Introduction》 (Vyvyan Evans)

Chap.9: Metaphor and metonomy

• The basic premise of Conceptual Metaphor Theory is that metaphor is not simply a stylistic feature of language, but that thought itself if fundamentally metaphorical in nature.
• Conceptual operations involving mappings, such as conceptual metaphor, are known more generally as conceptual projection.

Literal versus figurative language

• There is no evidence for a princinpled distinction between literal and figurative language.
• Can the distinction be matintained? 修辞性和非修辞性语言的区别真的存在吗？
  -1. Conventional versus non-conventional language use: Much of our everyday language use turns out to be figurative. 我们以为日常语言使用是以非修辞性语言为主，而事实上我们日常语言使用多为修辞性语言
  -2. Metaphorical versus non-metaphorical language use: The non-mataphorical definition of literality, which entails that we should always be able to express ourselves without resourse to metaphoric language, does not apprear to present an accurate picture of the facts. 我们在表达自己的时候常用修辞性语言。
  -3. Literal truth versus literal falsity in language use: It is supposed that expressions can be literally false and therefore figurative. But some expressions cannot be evaluted as true or false and thus are neither literal nor figurative. 在判断修辞性语言的时候，如果一个语言表达是literally false的，那么其就是figurative的。但事实上许多语言表达无法被评判为literally false or true，因此既非literal又非figurative。
  -4. Context-free versus context-dependent language use: Literal meaning is thought to be context-independent. However, by cognitive semanticists, they are not context-independent, because they are interpreted against the background of rich encyclopaedic knowledge. 字面义（直译义）被认为是独立于语境的，即不需要语境知识也能够被理解。但认知语义学家提出，即使是字面义也不是独立于语境的，因为字面义的理解也要基于百科知识背景。
• In sum, it is difficult to establish a neat dividing line between literal and figurative meaning. 通过以上论述可以发现，在“字面义”与“修辞义”之间很难划一条分界线。

What is metaphor?

• For over 2000 years, metaphor was studies within the discipline known as rhetoric, to contrast with simile.
• Resemblance-based metaphors 相似性隐喻:
  -Metaphors can be based on comparison. We will use the term perceived resemblance to describe this comparison. The resemblance may be due to physical or cultural knowledge. Metaphors of this kind are called resemblance metaphors.
• Correlation-based metaphor 相关性隐喻:
  -Research in the conceptual metaphor has been primarily concerned with another kind of metaphor.
  -Lakoff and Johnson’s book Metaphors We Live By changed the way linguists thought about metaphor for two important resons. 《我们赖以生存的隐喻》一书提出了两点，改变了语言学家对隐喻的看法。
  (1)Firstly, metaphorical language apprears to related to an undrlying metaphor system, a system of thought. In other words, we cannot choose any conceptual domain at random in order to describe some relationship. 首先，隐喻性语言与深层潜在的隐喻系统相关联，这也就是说，我们在描述某种关系时不能随意挑选概念中的某个域来描述该关系。
  They hypothesis a conventional link at the conceptual level between two domains. The target is conventionally structured in terms of the source. This association is called a conceptual metaphor. From this perspective, linguistic expressions that are metaphorical in nature are simply reflections of an underlying conceptual association.
  他们猜测，在概念层次上，这两个域之间存在惯常连接。某目标域通常都是通过某源域来解释的。这种连接关系就被称为“概念隐喻”。从这个角度来看，隐喻性语言表达实质上是深层上概念间联系的表层形式。
  There are a number of distinct roles that populate the source and target domains. The metaphor works by mapping roles from the source onto the target. A metaphorical link between two domains consists of a number of distinct correspondences or mappings. 在目标域和源域中都存在多个角色，隐喻的实现是通过将源域的角色一一投射到目标域上。两个域之间的隐喻连接由数个不同的投射共同组成。
  (2)The second important claim is that conceptual metaphors are grounded in the nature of our everyday interaction with the world. That is, conceptual metaphor has an experiential basis. 第二点是，概念隐喻是基于我们与世界的互动的，即概念隐喻具有经验基础。The association at the conceptual level which is reflected in linguistic examples derives from the correlation experienced in everyday lives. 概念层次上的连接是来源于日常经验中的联系。

Conceptual Metaphor theory 概念隐喻理论

• The unidirectionality of metaphor 概念隐喻是单向的: This means that metaphors map structure from a source domain to a target domain but not vice verse. 概念隐喻的操作只能从源域到目标域，不能相反。Even when two metaphors share the same two domains (like PEOPLES ARE MACHINES and MACHINES ARE PEOPLE), each metaphor is distinct in nature because it relies upon different mapping. 即使两个概念隐喻共享同样的两个域，我们也不能说概念隐喻是双向的；这两个隐喻是各自不同的，因为它们涉及不同的投射路径。
• Motivation for targe and source 源域和目标域的motivation:
  -Kovecses (2002) found that the most common source domains for metaphorical mappings include conceptual categories relating to the HUMAN BODY, ANIMALS, PLANTS, FOOD and FORCES. The most common target domains include conceptual categories like EMOTION, MORALITY, THOUGHT, HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS, and TIME.
  -The prevalent explanation until the mid-1990s was that target concepts tended to be more abstract, lacking physical characteristics and therefore more difficult to understand and talk about in their own terms. In contrast, source domains tended to be more concrete and therefore more readily graspable. 目标域往往更抽象，缺乏实际特征，更难被理解。源域更具体，更好理解。
• Metaphorical entailments 隐喻蕴涵
  -In addition to the individual mappings that conceptual metaphors bring with them, they also provide detailed additional knowledge. This is because aspects of the source domain that are not explicityly stated in the mappings can be inferred. 概念隐喻除了会带来跨域投射，同时还会提供一些其他的细节知识。这是因为，源域的某些方面在投射过程中未被明确彰显出来。这样，隐喻投射过程携带着蕴涵信息（或参考信息）。
  -For example, structure that holds in the source domain can be inferred as holding in the target domain. 例如，虽然在投射过程中未被彰显，源域中成立的结构在目标域中也成立。
• Metaphor systems 隐喻系统
  -Conceptual metaphors interact with each other and give rise to relatively complex metaphor systems. These systems are collections of more schematic matephorical mappings that structure a range of more specific metephors. 一些概念隐喻彼此相互作用，产生了相对复杂的隐喻系统。这些系统是更图示化的隐喻投射的合集，为更具体的隐喻提供了组织和架构。
  -A particularly intricate example of a metaphor system is the event structure system. This is a series of metaphors that interact in the interpretation of utterances. 其中一个隐喻系统的例子就是时间结构隐喻。该隐喻系统中的一系列隐喻相互作用，帮助话语理解。For example, LIFE IS A JOURNEY is a highly complex metaphor that represents a composite mapping drawing from a range of related and mutually coherent mataphors. Each metaphor inherits structure from a specific metaphor within the event structure complex. Similarly, other complex metaphors also inherit structure from the Event Structure Metaphor. (See p. 300)
• Metaphors and image schemas 隐喻和意象图式
  Image schemas could serve as source domains for metaphoric mapping. Highly abstract concepts are more likely to be structured in complex ways by inheritance relations: a net work of intermediate mapping. 一般认为，意象图式是概念隐喻中的源域。高度抽象的概念可能需要层层隐喻来被理解。
• Invariance/The Invariance Principle 不变性原则
  -There appear to be certain restrictions in terms of which source domains can serve particular target domains, as well as constraints on metaphorical entailments that can apply to particular target domains. 关于哪些源域能够适配哪些目标域，以及哪些隐喻蕴涵能够适配哪些目标域，关于这些都有限制条件。
  -In order to account for these restrictions, Lakoff proposed the Invariance Principle: Metaphorical mappings perserve the cognitive typology of the source domain, in a way consistent with the inherent structure of the target domain. 为了解释这些限制条件，Lakoff提出了不变性原则：在隐喻投射的过程中，那些符合目标域结构的源域拓扑结构得到保留（保持不变）。
  -What the invariance principle does is guarantee that imge-shematic organisation is invariant across metaphoric mappings. This means that the structure of the source domain must be preserved by the mapping in a way consistent with the target domain. 不变性原则的作用是保证意象图式结构在层层隐喻投射的过程中保持不变。
  -The Invariance Principle also predicts that metaphoric entailments that are incompatible with the target domain will fail to map. 不变性原则还暗含了，那些与目标域不合的蕴含信息无法被投射。
• The conceptual nature of metaphor 隐喻的概念性本质
  Metaphor, as an organisation of our conceptual system, exists in human systems other than language. This view comes from studies that have investigated the metaphorical basis of a diverse range of phenomena and constructs. 隐喻不仅仅存在于语言当中，作为一种思维组织方式，在许多现象和事物中都存在。
• Hiding and highlighting 强调与隐藏
  When a target is structured in terms of a particular source, this highlights certain aspects of the target while simutaneouly hiding other aspects. 在隐喻投射的过程中，目标域的部分会被强调，部分又会被隐藏。

Primary Metaphor Theory 基本隐喻理论

• A problem with Conceptual Metaphor Theory (or the Invariance Theory): the purpose of metaphor is to map structure onto abstract domains: if a target already has its own invariant structure, why should it require metaphoric structuring? 概念隐喻理论（中不变性原则）的问题：如果一个目标域本身就有概念结构，为甚还需要隐喻性的结构呢？

基本隐喻和复合隐喻

• To address the problem, Joseph Gardy proposes two kinds of metaphor: primary metaphor and compound metaphor. 为了解决这个问题，Joseph Gardy提出了两大类隐喻，基本隐喻和复合隐喻。
  -Primary metaphors are foundational. Primary metaphors conventionally associate concepts that are equally basic, in the sense that they are both directly experienced and percived. 基本隐喻是直接与经验和感知相关的。
  -Compound metaphors are constructed from the unification of primary metaphors. 复合隐喻是从基本隐喻的接合分析建构得到的。
• Source domains and target domains in primary metaphors 基本隐喻中的源域和目标域:
  This means that the view that the distinction between the target and source of a metaphoric mapping relates to abstract versus concrete concepts is rejected. Instead, the distinction between target and source relates to degree of subjectivity. The key distinction between target and source is that primary source concepts relate to sensory-perceptual experience, while primary target concepts relate to subjective responses to sensory-perceptual experience. 基本隐喻理论认为目标域和源域的区别不在于抽象或具体，而在于主观感知度（即与主体经验和感知的距离）。基本源域与感觉感知经验相关，基本目标域与感觉感知经验的主观反应有关。
  Primary target concepts are no less experiential than primary source domains; primary target concepts are less consciously accessible than primary source concepts. 基本隐喻中国的源域和目标域具有同样的涉身程度；不同的是目标域的被感知程度更低（往往很难认识到目标域的存在）。
• This view means that the Invariance Principle is redundant because the foundational primary metaphors, upon which more complex metaphor systems are based, are not viewed as providing an abstract target with missing structure. 也因此，不变性原则是多余的。因为基础性的基本隐喻是复杂隐喻系统的基础，而不是为抽象目标域修补结构。
• The cognitive function of metaphor, according to this theorym is to foreground otherwise background operations. 这样来看，隐喻的作用是使那些背景中的认知操作前景化。

Experiencial correlation 感觉相关性

• Then what motivates the association between target and primary source? 是什么激发了目标域和源域之间的联系呢？
• Grady maintains the assumption fundamental to Conceptual Metaphor that there is an experiential basis for primary metaphor formation. This experiential basis is clear and direct in Grady’s theory, called experiential correlation.

Motivating primary metaphors

• Primary Metaphor Theory assumes that primary metaphors are unidirectional.
• In Primary Metaphor Theory, the mapping from source to target is explained in the following terms: because primary target concepts relate to subjective responses, they operate at a level of cognitive processing to which we have low conscious access. Primary target concepts are responses and evaluations, which derive from background operations. The function of primary metaphor is to structure primary target concpets in terms of sensory images in order to foreground otherwise backgrounded cognitive operations. This is achieved by employing source concepts that are more accessible because they relate to sensory rather than subjective experience. 在基本隐喻理论中，源域到目标域的映射是这样解释的（因为基本隐喻理论不承认源域和目标域是具体和抽象的关系）：因为基本目标域的概念与主观反应有关，这些概念工作在一个我们很难意识到的认知层面。基本隐喻的功能就是基本目标域中的概念提供感知图式，使这些背景化的认知操作前景化（显著化）。这就要依靠源域来实现。

Distinguishing primary and compound metaphors 如何区分基本隐喻和复合隐喻

• Association of complex domains: Primary domains relate two simple concepts from distinct domains. Compound metaphors relate entire complex domains of experience. (Primary metaphors link distinct concepts from distinct domains rather than linking entire domains.) 复杂域的结合：基本隐喻联系两个域中的两个概念，复合隐喻联系两个复杂域。
• Poverty of mapping: 投射的贫穷
  -Primary metaphors are expected to contain no mapping gaps. Because a primary metaphor maps one single concept onto another, there is no part of either concept that is missing from the mapping. 基本隐喻不会出现投射空缺的现象。因为基本隐喻涉及两个简单概念的联系，概念无法被继续细分。
  -In contrast, the compound metaphor relies upon two complex conceptual domains, each of which can be broken down into component parts. Some components may fail to map onto the target concept. 复合概念涉及两个复杂概念域，每个概念域都能够被分为不同的组成部分，目标域中的某些组成部分在源域中可能没有投射对象，也就出现了投射空缺。
• Lack of clear experiential basis 缺乏清晰的经验基础: Primary metaphors emerge from a clear experiential basis.

Conceptual metonomy 概念转喻

• Cognitive semantics argue that conceptual metonomy is not a purely linguistic device but is central to human thought. 像概念隐喻一样，概念转喻也不是纯粹的语言工具，而是与人类思维密切相关的。
• Metonomy serves as point of access to a particular aspect of a domain and thus provides access to the target concept. 转喻可以被视为发挥着连接点的作用，连接了某概念域的某方面，从而连接了目标概念。
• Croft’s proposal is that, from the perspective of encyclopaedic semantics, metonomy functions by highlighting one domain with a concept’s domain matrix. Thus a particular usage of a lexical concept can hightlight distinct domains within the concept’s domain matrix on different occasions. 在Croft看来，从语义百科全书观点来看，转喻的作用方式是强调某概念对应的复杂域网中的某个域。因此，语义概念的不同使用方式能够在不同情况下强调其对应的复杂域网中的某个域。

Metonomy-producing relationships 产生转喻的关系

• There appear to be two main kinds of motivating relationships:
  -1. part-whole, whole-part relationships: parts or substructures of a domain represent the entire domain;
  -2. domain part-part relationships: parts of a domain stand for other parts.

Vehicles for metonomy 转喻手段/媒介

• To account for the selection of a vehicle for metonomic relationships, we briefly present two of the cognitive principles: (1). HUMAN OVER NON-HUMAN; (2). CONCRETE OVER ABSTRACT.

Metaphor-metonomy interaction (See p. 318)