Chap.4 总结《CL: An Introduction》 (Vyvyan Evans)

CHAPTER 4: Language in use: knowledge of language, language change and language acquisition

• -Usage-based thesis: Language structure emerges from language use (Michael Tomasello, 2003).
  -Conitive lingtuistics takes a usage-based thesis, it follows from this assumption that language structure cannot be studied without taking into account the nature of language use. 认知语言学认为语言使基于使用的，因此研究语言结构不能不考虑语言使用。This perspective characterises cognitive linguistics as functionalist rather that formalist. 因此，认知语言学是属于功能学派，而非形式学派。
  -While in Chomsky’s terms, there is distinction between completence and performance; and he priviliges competence over performance. 但乔姆斯基（形式语言学）认为语言能力与语言使用是区分开的，并且更重视语言能力的研究。

1. Some assumptions by usage-based thesis

• The central importance of the utterance.
  -Usage event: A usage event is an utterance. An utterance is a situated instance of language use culturally and contextually embedded. A usage event or utterance has a unit-like status, and is a somewhat discrete entity (to be distinguished from the related notion of sentence, an idealisation that has determinete properties).
  -Utterance: utterances typically occur spontaneously and often do not conform to the grammarticality requirements of a well-formed sentence. Utterances often exhibit graded grammmaticality. The notion of a usage event or utterance is central to the cognitive perspective.
• Knowledge of language is derived from and informed by language use.
  -Knowledge of language is derived from and informed by language use. Language acquisition is understood as the extraction of linguistic units or constructions from patterns in the usage events experienced by the child. Lanuge change is seen as a function of interactional and social pressures that motivate changes in the conventions of the language system.
• Human language can only be meaningfully accounted for by emphasising the interactive nature of language use.
• The central importance of context to the usage-based model.
  -The context has important effects on meaning.
  -There are two kinds of contexts: sentential/utterance context, and background context.
  -One consequense of the role of context in language use is that ambiguity can frequently arise.
  -Coded meaning: the conventional meaning associated with a word or construction, often “abstraction”; pragmatic meaning: the meaning that arises from the context, often “real meaning”.
• The relative frequency of linguistic units affect the nature and organisation of the language system.
  -The more frequently encountered become more entrenched. It follows that the language system , while diriving from language use, can also influence language use.

2. Examples to illustrate the usage-based thesis

• Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar model: to assume that linguistic units or symbolic assemblies are explicitly derived from language use.
• Croft’s Utterance Selection Theory: to emphasize the importance of linguistic convention and interaction in language change.

3.Michael Tomasello’s research in language acquisition

• To compare with Chomsky’s Universal Grammar, one shared agreement is that humans are biologically predeterminded for language acquisition.