【考研数学一·高数(9)】多元函数积分学的基础知识

1.向量的运算及其应用

$\mathbf{a}=(a_x,a_y,a_z)$，$\mathbf{b}=(b_x,b_y,b_z)$，$\mathbf{c}=(c_x,c_y,c_z)$均为非零向量

• 数量积（点积、内积）

  1. $\mathbf{a}\cdot \mathbf{b}=a_x{b}_x+a_y{b}_y+a_z{b}_z$

  2. $\mathbf{a}\cdot \mathbf{b}=|\mathbf{a}||\mathbf{b}|\cos \theta$

     $\cos \theta =\frac{\mathbf{a}\cdot \mathbf{b}}{|\mathbf{a}||\mathbf{b}|}=\frac{a_x{b}_x+a_y{b}_y+a_z{b}_z}{\sqrt{a_x^2+a_y^2+a_z^2}\sqrt{b_x^2+b_y^2+b_z^2}}$

  3. $\mathbf{a}$在$\mathbf{b}$上的投影：$Pr{j}_{\mathbf{b}}\mathbf{a}=\frac{a_x{b}_x+a_y{b}_y+a_z{b}_z}{\sqrt{b_x^2+b_y^2+b_z^2}}$

  4. $\mathbf{a}\perp \mathbf{b}\iff a_x{b}_x+a_y{b}_y+a_z{b}_z=0$

• 向量积（外积、叉积）

  1. $\mathbf{a}\times \mathbf{b}=\left|\begin{array}{ccc}\mathbf{i}& \mathbf{j}& \mathbf{k}\\ a_x& a_y& a_z\\ b_x& b_y& b_z\end{array}\right|,|\mathbf{a}\times \mathbf{b}|=|\mathbf{a}||\mathbf{b}|\sin \theta$
  2. $\mathbf{a}\parallel \mathbf{b}\iff \frac{a_x}{b_x}=\frac{a_y}{b_y}=\frac{a_z}{b_z}$

• 混合积

  1. $[\mathbf{abc}]=(\mathbf{a}\times \mathbf{b})\cdot \mathbf{c}=\left|\begin{array}{ccc}{a}_x& a_y& a_z\\ b_x& b_y& b_z\\ c_x& c_y& c_z\end{array}\right|$
  2. $\left|\begin{array}{ccc}{a}_x& a_y& a_z\\ b_x& b_y& b_z\\ c_x& c_y& c_z\end{array}\right|=0\iff$三向量共面

• 向量的方向角和方向余弦

  1. $\mathbf{a}$的方向角：$\mathbf{a}$与$x$轴、$y$轴和$z$轴正向的夹角$\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma$
  2. $\mathbf{a}$的方向余弦：$\cos \alpha =\frac{a_x}{|\mathbf{a}|},\cos \beta =\frac{a_y}{|\mathbf{a}|},\cos \gamma =\frac{a_z}{|\mathbf{a}|}$
  3. $\mathbf{a}$的单位向量：${\mathbf{a}}^{\circ }=\frac{\mathbf{a}}{|\mathbf{a}|}=(\cos \alpha ,\cos \beta ,\cos \gamma )$

2.空间平面与直线

2.1.平面方程

法向量$\mathbf{n}=(A,B,C)\{\begin{array}{l}一般式Ax+By+Cz+D=0\\ 点法式A(x-x_0)+B(y-y_0)+C(z-z_0)=0\\ 三点式\left|\begin{array}{c}x-x_{1}y-y_{1}z-z_1\\ x-x_{2}y-y_{2}z-z_w\\ x-x_{2}y-y_{3}z-z_3\end{array}\right|=0\\ 截距式\frac{x}{a}+\frac{y}{b}+\frac{z}{c}=1\end{array}$

2.2.平面束方程

设${\pi }_i:A_{i}x+B_{i}y+C_{i}z+D_i=0,i=1,2$

过$L:\{\begin{array}{l}{A}_{1}x+B_{1}y+C_{1}z+D_1=0\\ A_{2}x+B_{2}y+C_{2}z+D_2=0\end{array}$的平面束方程为

$A_{1}x+B_{1}y+C_{1}z+D_1+\lambda (A_{2}x+B_{2}y+C_{2}z+D_2)=0$（不含${\pi }_2$）

或$A_{2}x+B_{2}y+C_{2}z+D_2+\lambda (A_{1}x+B_{1}y+C_{1}z+D_1)=0$（不含${\pi }_1$）

2.3.直线方程

方向向量$\tau =(l,m,n)\{\begin{array}{l}一般式\{\begin{array}{l}{A}_{1}x+B_{1}y+C_{1}z+D_1=0,{\mathbf{n}}_1=(A_1,B_1,C_1)\\ A_{2}x+B_{2}y+C_{2}z+D_2=0,{\mathbf{n}}_2=(A_2,B_2,C_2)\end{array}{\mathbf{n}}_1与{\mathbf{n}}_2不平行,\tau ={\mathbf{n}}_1\times {\mathbf{n}}_2\\ 点向式(标准式)\frac{x-x_0}{l}=\frac{y-y_0}{m}=\frac{z-z_0}{n}\\ 参数式\{\begin{array}{l}x=x_0+lt\\ y=y_0+mt\\ z=z_0+nt\end{array}\\ 两点式\frac{x-x_1}{x_2-x_1}=\frac{y-y_1}{y_2-y_1}=\frac{z-z_1}{z_2-z_1}\end{array}$

3.空间曲线与曲面

3.1.空间曲线

1. 一般式$\Gamma :\{\begin{array}{l}F(x,y,z)=0\\ G(x,y,z)=0\end{array}$

2. 参数方程$\Gamma :\{\begin{array}{l}x=\phi (t)\\ y=\psi (t)\\ z=\omega (t)\end{array}t\in [\alpha ,\beta ]$

3.2.空间曲面

1. 曲面方程$F(x,y,z)=0$

2. 二次曲面$\{\begin{array}{l}椭球面\frac{x^2}{a^2}+\frac{y^2}{b^2}+\frac{z^2}{c^2}=1\\ 单叶双曲面\frac{x^2}{a^2}+\frac{y^2}{b^2}-\frac{z^2}{c^2}=1\\ 双叶双曲面\frac{x^2}{a^2}-\frac{y^2}{b^2}-\frac{z^2}{c^2}=1\\ 椭圆抛物面\frac{x^2}{2p}+\frac{y^2}{2q}=z(p,q>0)\\ 旋转抛物面x^2+y^2=z\\ 椭圆锥面\frac{x^2}{a^2}+\frac{y^2}{b^2}=\frac{z^2}{c^2}\\ 双曲抛物面(马鞍面)\{\begin{array}{l}-\frac{x^2}{2p}+\frac{y^2}{2q}=z(p,q>0)\\ z=xy\end{array}\end{array}$

3. 柱面

   • 动直线沿定曲线平行移动形成的曲面
   • $\{\begin{array}{l}椭圆柱面\frac{x^2}{a^2}+\frac{y^2}{b^2}=1\\ 双曲柱面\frac{x^2}{a^2}-\frac{y^2}{b^2}=1\\ 抛物柱面y=a{x}^2\end{array}$

3.3.旋转曲面

曲线$\Gamma$绕一条定直线旋转一周形成的曲面

• 旋转曲面方程求法：

  曲线$\Gamma :\{\begin{array}{l}F(x,y,z)=0\\ G(x,y,z)=0\end{array}$，直线$L:\frac{x-x_0}{m}=\frac{y-y_0}{n}=\frac{z-z_0}{p}$

  已知点$M_0(x_0,y_0,z_0)$，方向向量$\mathbf{s}=(m,n,p)$

  在母线$\Gamma$上任取一点$M_1(x_1,y_1,z_1)$，则过$M_1$的纬圆上任意一点$P(x,y,z)$满足$\overrightarrow{M_{1}P}\perp \mathbf{s},|\overrightarrow{M_{0}P}|=|\overrightarrow{M_0{M}_1|}$

  即$\{\begin{array}{l}m(x-x_1)+n(y-y_1)+p(z-z_1)=0\\ {(x-x_0)}^2+{(y-y_0)}^2+{(z-z_0)}^2={(x_1-x_0)}^2+{(y_1-y_0)}^2+{(z_1-z_0)}^2\end{array}$

  与方程$F(x_1,y_1,z_1)=0$和$G(x_1,y_1,z_1)=0$联立消去$x_1,y_1,z_1$

• 绕$x$轴旋转一周而成的曲面

  $\Gamma :\{\begin{array}{l}F(x,y,z)=0\\ G(x,y,z)=0\end{array}\Rightarrow \{\begin{array}{l}y=f_1(x)\\ z=f_2(x)\end{array}$，则旋转曲面方程为$y^2+z^2=[f_1(x){]}^2+[f_2(x){]}^2$

• 绕$y$轴旋转一周而成的曲面

  $\Gamma :\{\begin{array}{l}F(x,y,z)=0\\ G(x,y,z)=0\end{array}\Rightarrow \{\begin{array}{l}x=f_3(y)\\ z=f_4(y)\end{array}$，则旋转曲面方程为$x^2+z^2=[f_3(y){]}^2+[f_4(y){]}^2$

• 绕$z$轴旋转一周而成的曲面

  $\Gamma :\{\begin{array}{l}F(x,y,z)=0\\ G(x,y,z)=0\end{array}\Rightarrow \{\begin{array}{l}x=f_5(z)\\ y=f_6(z)\end{array}$，则旋转曲面方程为$x^2+y^2=[f_5(z){]}^2+[f_6(z){]}^2$

3.4.空间曲线的切线与法平面

1. $\Gamma :\{\begin{array}{l}x=\phi (t)\\ y=\psi (t)\\ z=\omega (t)\end{array}t\in [\alpha ,\beta ]$
   • 切向量：$\tau =({\phi }^{\prime }(t_0),{\psi }^{\prime }(t_0),{\omega }^{\prime }(t_0))$
   • 切线方程：$\frac{x-x_0}{{\phi }^{\prime }(t_0)}=\frac{y-y_0}{{\psi }^{\prime }(t_0)}=\frac{z-z_0}{{\omega }^{\prime }(t_0)}$
   • 法平面：${\phi }^{\prime }(t_0)(x-x_0)+{\psi }^{\prime }(t_0)(y-y_0)+{\omega }^{\prime }(t_0)(z-z_0)=0$
2. $\Gamma :\{\begin{array}{l}F(x,y,z)=0\\ G(x,y,z)=0\end{array}$
   • 切向量：$\tau =({\left|\begin{array}{c}{F}_y^{\prime }{F}_z^{\prime }\\ G_y^{\prime }{G}_z^{\prime }\end{array}\right|}_{P_0},{\left|\begin{array}{c}{F}_z^{\prime }{F}_x^{\prime }\\ G_z^{\prime }{G}_x^{\prime }\end{array}\right|}_{P_0},{\left|\begin{array}{c}{F}_x^{\prime }{F}_y^{\prime }\\ G_x^{\prime }{G}_y^{\prime }\end{array}\right|}_{P_0})$
   • 切线方程：$\frac{x-x_0}{{\left|\begin{array}{c}{F}_y^{\prime }{F}_z^{\prime }\\ G_y^{\prime }{G}_z^{\prime }\end{array}\right|}_{P_0}}=\frac{y-y_0}{{\left|\begin{array}{c}{F}_z^{\prime }{F}_x^{\prime }\\ G_z^{\prime }{G}_x^{\prime }\end{array}\right|}_{P_0}}=\frac{z-z_0}{{\left|\begin{array}{c}{F}_x^{\prime }{F}_y^{\prime }\\ G_x^{\prime }{G}_y^{\prime }\end{array}\right|}_{P_0}}$
   • 法平面：${\left|\begin{array}{c}{F}_y^{\prime }{F}_z^{\prime }\\ G_y^{\prime }{G}_z^{\prime }\end{array}\right|}_{P_0}(x-x_0)+{\left|\begin{array}{c}{F}_z^{\prime }{F}_x^{\prime }\\ G_z^{\prime }{G}_x^{\prime }\end{array}\right|}_{P_0}(y-y_0)+{\left|\begin{array}{c}{F}_x^{\prime }{F}_y^{\prime }\\ G_x^{\prime }{G}_y^{\prime }\end{array}\right|}_{P_0}(z-z_0)=0$

3.5.空间曲面的切平面与法线

1. $F(x,y,z)=0$

   • 法向量：$\mathbf{n}=(F_x^{\prime }(x_0,y_0,z_0),F_y^{\prime }(x_0,y_0,z_0),F_z^{\prime }(x_0,y_0,z_0))$
   • 法线方程：$\frac{x-x_0}{F_x^{\prime }(x_0,y_0,z_0)}=\frac{y-y_0}{F_y^{\prime }(x_0,y_0,z_0)}=\frac{z-z_0}{F_z^{\prime }(x_0,y_0,z_0)}$
   • 切平面：$F_x^{\prime }(x_0,y_0,z_0)(x-x_0)+F_y^{\prime }(x_0,y_0,z_0)(y-y_0)+F_z^{\prime }(x_0,y_0,z_0)(z-z_0)=0$

2. $z=f(x,y)$

   令$F(x,y,z)=f(x,y)-z$

3.6.空间曲线在坐标面上的投影

空间曲线$\Gamma$在$xOy$面上的投影：

将$\Gamma :\{\begin{array}{l}F(x,y,z)=0\\ G(x,y,z)=0\end{array}$中的$z$消去，得到$\varphi (x,y)=0$，则曲线$\Gamma$在$xOy$面上的投影曲线包含于曲线$\{\begin{array}{l}\varphi (x,y)=0\\ z=0\end{array}$

4.位置关系

1. 点到直线的距离
   • 点$M_1(x_1,y_1,z_1)$到直线$L:\frac{x-x_0}{m}=\frac{y-y_0}{n}=\frac{z-z_0}{p}$的距离
   • $d=\frac{|\mathbf{s}\times \overrightarrow{M_{1}M}|}{|\mathbf{s}|}=\frac{\Vert \begin{array}{ccc}\mathbf{i}& \mathbf{j}& \mathbf{k}\\ m& n& p\\ x_0-x_1& y_0-y_1& z_0-z_1\end{array}\Vert }{\sqrt{m^2+n^2+p^2}}$
   • 其中$\overrightarrow{M_{1}M}=(x_0-x_1,y_0-y_1,z_0-z_1),M=(x_0,y_0,z_0),\mathbf{s}=(m,n,p)$
2. 点到平面的距离
   • 点$P_0(x_0,y_0,z_0)$到平面$Ax+By+Cz+D=0$的距离$d=\frac{|A{x}_0+B{y}_0+C{z}_0+D|}{\sqrt{A^2+B^2+C^2}}$
3. 直线与直线
   • 设${\tau }_1=(l_1,m_1,n_1),{\tau }_2=(l_2,m_2,n_2)$分别为直线$L_1,L_2$的方向向量
     • $L_1\perp L_2\iff {\tau }_1\perp {\tau }_2\iff l_1{l}_2+m_1{m}_2+n_1{n}_2=0$
     • $L_1\parallel L_2\iff {\tau }_1\parallel {\tau }_2\iff \frac{l_1}{l_2}=\frac{m_1}{m_2}=\frac{n_1}{n_2}$
     • 直线$L_1,L_2$的夹角$\theta =\arccos \frac{|{\tau }_1\cdot {\tau }_2|}{|{\tau }_1||{\tau }_2|}$，其中$\theta =\min \{(\widehat{{\tau }_1,{\tau }_2}),\pi -(\widehat{{\tau }_1,{\tau }_2})\}\in [0,\frac{\pi }{2}]$
4. 平面与平面
   • 设平面${\pi }_1,{\pi }_2$的法向量分别为${\mathbf{n}}_1=(A_1,B_1,C_1),{\mathbf{n}}_2=(A_2,B_2,C_2)$
     • ${\pi }_1\perp {\pi }_2\iff {\mathbf{n}}_1\perp {\mathbf{n}}_2\iff A_1{A}_2+B_1{B}_2+C_1{C}_2=0$
     • ${\pi }_1\parallel {\pi }_2\iff {\mathbf{n}}_1\parallel {\mathbf{n}}_2\iff \frac{A_1}{A_2}=\frac{B_1}{B_2}=\frac{C_1}{C_2}$
     • 平面${\pi }_1,{\pi }_2$的夹角$\theta =\arccos \frac{|{\mathbf{n}}_1\cdot {\mathbf{n}}_2|}{|{\mathbf{n}}_1||{\mathbf{n}}_2|}$，其中$\theta =\min \{(\widehat{{\mathbf{n}}_1,{\mathbf{n}}_2}),\pi -(\widehat{{\mathbf{n}}_1,{\mathbf{n}}_2})\}\in [0,\frac{\pi }{2}]$
5. 平面与直线
   • 设直线$L$的方向向量为$\tau =(l,m,n)$，平面$\pi$的法向量为$\mathbf{n}=(A,B,C)$
     • $L\perp \pi \iff \tau \parallel \mathbf{n}\iff \frac{l}{A}=\frac{m}{B}=\frac{n}{C}$
     • $L\parallel \pi \iff \tau \perp \mathbf{n}\iff Al+Bm+Cn=0$
     • 直线$L$与平面$\pi$的夹角$\theta =\arcsin \frac{|\tau \cdot \mathbf{n}|}{|\tau ||\mathbf{n}|}$，其中$\theta =|\frac{\pi }{2}-(\widehat{\tau ,\mathbf{n}})|\in [0,\frac{\pi }{2}]$

5.场论初步

5.1.方向导数

1. 定义
   • 设三元函数$u=u(x,y,z)$在点$P_0(x_0,y_0,z_0)$的某空间邻域$U\subset R^3$内有定义，$l$为从点$P_0$出发的射线，$P(x,y,z)$为$l$上且在$U$内的任一点，则$\{\begin{array}{l}x-x_0=\Delta x=t\cos \alpha \\ y-y_0=\Delta y=t\cos \beta \\ z-z_0=\Delta z=t\cos \gamma \end{array}$，以$t=\sqrt{(\Delta x{)}^2+(\Delta y{)}^2+(\Delta z{)}^2}$表示$P$与$P_0$之间的距离。
   • 若极限$\underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{u(P)-u(P_0)}{t}=\underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{u(x_0+t\cos \alpha ,y_0+t\cos \beta ,z_0+t\cos \gamma )-u(x_0,y_0,z_0)}{t}$存在，则称此极限为函数$u=u(x,y,z)$在$P_0$处沿方向$\mathbf{l}$的方向导数，记作$\frac{\partial u}{\partial \mathbf{l}}{|}_{P_0}$
2. 定理
   • 设三元函数$u=u(x,y,z)$在点$P_0(x_0,y_0,z_0)$处可微分，则$u=u(x,y,z)$在点$P_0$处沿任意方向$\mathbf{l}$的方向导数都存在，且$\frac{\partial u}{\partial \mathbf{l}}{|}_{P_0}=u_x^{\prime }(P_0)\cos \alpha +u_y^{\prime }(P_0)\cos \beta +u_z^{\prime }(P_0)\cos \gamma$

5.2.梯度

$\mathbf{grad}u{|}_{P_0}=(u_x^{\prime }(P_0),u_y^{\prime }(P_0),u_z^{\prime }(P_0))$

• 函数在某点处的梯度是一个向量，它的方向与取得最大方向导数的方向一致，它的模为方向导数的最大值$|\mathbf{grad}u|=\sqrt{(u_x^{\prime }{)}^2+(u_y^{\prime }{)}^2+(u_z^{\prime }{)}^2}$

5.3.散度

$div\mathbf{A}=\frac{\partial P}{\partial x}+\frac{\partial Q}{\partial y}+\frac{\partial R}{\partial z}$

5.4.旋度

$\mathbf{rot}\mathbf{A}=\left|\begin{array}{c}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{j}\mathbf{k}\\ \frac{\partial }{\partial x}\frac{\partial }{\partial y}\frac{\partial }{\partial z}\\ PQR\end{array}\right|$