第二十三章 opengl之高级OpenGL（实例化）

实例化

综合应用。
如果绘制了很多的模型，但是大部分的模型包含同一组顶点数据，只是不同的世界空间变换。
举例：一个全是草的场景，每根草都是一个包含了几个小三角形的模型。需要绘制很多根草，最后每帧需要渲染更多的草。因为：每一根草仅仅是由几个三角形构成，渲染几乎是瞬间完成的，但上千个渲染函数调用却会极大地影响性能。
渲染大量物体时，代码看起来会像这样：

for(unsigned int i = 0; i < amount_of_models_to_draw; i++)
{
    DoSomePreparations(); // 绑定VAO，绑定纹理，设置uniform等
    glDrawArrays(GL_TRIANGLES, 0, amount_of_vertices);
}

如果像这样绘制模型的大量实例，会出现因为绘制调用过多而达到性能瓶颈。与绘制顶点本身相比，使用glDrawArrays或glDrawElements函数告诉GPU去绘制你的顶点数据会消耗更多的性能，因为OpenGL在绘制顶点数据之前需要做很多准备工作（比如告诉GPU该从哪个缓冲读取数据，从哪寻找顶点属性，而且这些都是在相对缓慢的CPU到GPU总线(CPU to GPU Bus)上进行的）。所以，即便渲染顶点非常快，命令GPU去渲染却未必。

如果我们能够将数据一次性发送给GPU，然后使用一个绘制函数让OpenGL利用这些数据绘制多个物体，就会更方便了。这就是实例化(Instancing)。实例化这项技术能够让我们使用一个渲染调用来绘制多个物体，来节省每次绘制物体时CPU -> GPU的通信，它只需要一次即可。
如果想使用实例化渲染，我们只需要将glDrawArrays和glDrawElements的渲染调用分别改为glDrawArraysInstanced和glDrawElementsInstanced就可以了。这些渲染函数的实例化版本需要一个额外的参数，叫做实例数量(Instance Count)，它能够设置我们需要渲染的实例个数。
这样我们只需要将必须的数据发送到GPU一次，然后使用一次函数调用告诉GPU它应该如何绘制这些实例。GPU将会直接渲染这些实例，而不用不断地与CPU进行通信。

这个函数本身并没有什么用。渲染同一个物体一千次对我们并没有什么用处，每个物体都是完全相同的，而且还在同一个位置。我们只能看见一个物体！处于这个原因，GLSL在顶点着色器中嵌入了另一个内建变量，gl_InstanceID。
在使用实例化渲染调用时，gl_InstanceID会从0开始，在每个实例被渲染时递增1。比如说，我们正在渲染第43个实例，那么顶点着色器中它的gl_InstanceID将会是42。因为每个实例都有唯一的ID，我们可以建立一个数组，将ID与位置值对应起来，将每个实例放置在世界的不同位置。

为了体验一下实例化绘制，我们将会在标准化设备坐标系中使用一个渲染调用，绘制100个2D四边形。我们会索引一个包含100个偏移向量的uniform数组，将偏移值加到每个实例化的四边形上。最终的结果是一个排列整齐的四边形网格：

每个四边形由2个三角形所组成，一共有6个顶点。每个顶点包含一个2D的标准化设备坐标位置向量和一个颜色向量。 下面就是这个例子使用的顶点数据，为了大量填充屏幕，每个三角形都很小：

float quadVertices[] = {
    // 位置          // 颜色
    -0.05f,  0.05f,  1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f,
     0.05f, -0.05f,  0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f,
    -0.05f, -0.05f,  0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f,

    -0.05f,  0.05f,  1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f,
     0.05f, -0.05f,  0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f,   
     0.05f,  0.05f,  0.0f, 1.0f, 1.0f                   
};  

片段着色器会从顶点着色器接受颜色向量，并将其设置为它的颜色输出，来实现四边形的颜色：

#version 330 core
out vec4 FragColor;

in vec3 fColor;

void main()
{
    FragColor = vec4(fColor, 1.0);
}

而顶点着色器的实现是：

#version 330 core
layout (location = 0) in vec2 aPos;
layout (location = 1) in vec3 aColor;

out vec3 fColor;

uniform vec2 offsets[100];

void main()
{
    vec2 offset = offsets[gl_InstanceID];
    gl_Position = vec4(aPos + offset, 0.0, 1.0);
    fColor = aColor;
}

上述代码定义了一个叫做offsets的数组，它包含100个偏移向量。在顶点着色器中，我们会使用gl_InstanceID来索引offsets数组，获取每个实例的偏移向量。如果我们要实例化绘制100个四边形，仅使用这个顶点着色器我们就能得到100个位于不同位置的四边形。

需要设置这些偏移位置，在进入渲染循环之前使用一个嵌套for循环计算：

glm::vec2 translations[100];
int index = 0;
float offset = 0.1f;
for(int y = -10; y < 10; y += 2)
{
    for(int x = -10; x < 10; x += 2)
    {
        glm::vec2 translation;
        translation.x = (float)x / 10.0f + offset;
        translation.y = (float)y / 10.0f + offset;
        translations[index++] = translation;
    }
}

创建100个位移向量，表示10x10网格上的所有位置。除了生成translations数组之外，我们还需要将数据转移到顶点着色器的uniform数组中：

shader.use();
for(unsigned int i = 0; i < 100; i++)
{
    stringstream ss;
    string index;
    ss << i; 
    index = ss.str(); 
    shader.setVec2(("offsets[" + index + "]").c_str(), translations[i]);
}

我们将for循环的计数器i转换为一个string，我们可以用它来动态创建位置值的字符串，用于uniform位置值的索引。接下来，我们会对offsets uniform数组中的每一项设置对应的位移向量。

现在所有的准备工作都做完了，我们可以开始渲染四边形了。对于实例化渲染，我们使用glDrawArraysInstanced或glDrawElementsInstanced。因为我们使用的不是索引缓冲，我们会调用glDrawArrays版本的函数：

glBindVertexArray(quadVAO);
glDrawArraysInstanced(GL_TRIANGLES, 0, 6, 100);

glDrawArraysInstanced的参数和glDrawArrays完全一样，除了最后多了个参数用来设置需要绘制的实例数量。因为我们想要在10x10网格中显示100个四边形，我们将它设置为100.运行代码之后，得到100个五彩的四边形。

实例化数组

如果我们要渲染远超过100个实例的时候（这其实非常普遍），我们最终会超过最大能够发送至着色器的uniform数据大小上限。它的一个代替方案是实例化数组(Instanced Array)，它被定义为一个顶点属性（能够让我们储存更多的数据），仅在顶点着色器渲染一个新的实例时才会更新。

使用顶点属性时，顶点着色器的每次运行都会让GLSL获取新一组适用于当前顶点的属性。而当我们将顶点属性定义为一个实例化数组时，顶点着色器就只需要对每个实例，而不是每个顶点，更新顶点属性的内容了。这允许我们对逐顶点的数据使用普通的顶点属性，而对逐实例的数据使用实例化数组。

使用之前的例子，并将偏移量uniform数组设置为一个实例化数组。我们需要在顶点着色器中再添加一个顶点属性：

#version 330 core
layout (location = 0) in vec2 aPos;
layout (location = 1) in vec3 aColor;
layout (location = 2) in vec2 aOffset;

out vec3 fColor;

void main()
{
    gl_Position = vec4(aPos + aOffset, 0.0, 1.0);
    fColor = aColor;
}

不再使用gl_InstanceID，现在不需要索引一个uniform数组就能够直接使用offset属性了。

因为实例化数组和position与color变量一样，都是顶点属性，我们还需要将它的内容存在顶点缓冲对象中，并且配置它的属性指针。我们首先将（上一部分的）translations数组存到一个新的缓冲对象中：

unsigned int instanceVBO;
glGenBuffers(1, &instanceVBO);
glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, instanceVBO);
glBufferData(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, sizeof(glm::vec2) * 100, &translations[0], GL_STATIC_DRAW);
glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, 0);

之后我们还需要设置它的顶点属性指针，并启用顶点属性：

glEnableVertexAttribArray(2);
glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, instanceVBO);
glVertexAttribPointer(2, 2, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 2 * sizeof(float), (void*)0);
glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, 0);   
glVertexAttribDivisor(2, 1);

最后一行，我们调用了glVertexAttribDivisor。这个函数告诉了OpenGL该什么时候更新顶点属性的内容至新一组数据。它的第一个参数是需要的顶点属性，第二个参数是属性除数(Attribute Divisor)。默认情况下，属性除数是0，告诉OpenGL我们需要在顶点着色器的每次迭代时更新顶点属性。将它设置为1时，我们告诉OpenGL我们希望在渲染一个新实例的时候更新顶点属性。而设置为2时，我们希望每2个实例更新一次属性，以此类推。我们将属性除数设置为1，是在告诉OpenGL，处于位置值2的顶点属性是一个实例化数组。这次是使用实例化数组实现的，这让我们能够传递更多的数据到顶点着色器（只要内存允许）来用于实例化绘制。

还可以使用gl_InstanceID，从右上到左下逐渐缩小四边形：

void main()
{
    vec2 pos = aPos * (gl_InstanceID / 100.0);
    gl_Position = vec4(pos + aOffset, 0.0, 1.0);
    fColor = aColor;
}

结果是：绘制的第一个四边形的实例会非常小，随着绘制实例的增加，而gl_InstanceID会越来越接近100，则四边形也就越来越接近原始大小。

上述源码综合如下：

#include <glad/glad.h>
#include <GLFW/glfw3.h>

#include <demo/shader.h>

#include <iostream>

void framebuffer_size_callback(GLFWwindow* window, int width, int height);

// settings
const unsigned int SCR_WIDTH = 800;
const unsigned int SCR_HEIGHT = 600;

int main()
{
    // glfw: initialize and configure
    // ------------------------------
    glfwInit();
    glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MAJOR, 3);
    glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MINOR, 3);
    glfwWindowHint(GLFW_OPENGL_PROFILE, GLFW_OPENGL_CORE_PROFILE);

#ifdef __APPLE__
    glfwWindowHint(GLFW_OPENGL_FORWARD_COMPAT, GL_TRUE);
#endif

    // glfw window creation
    // --------------------
    GLFWwindow* window = glfwCreateWindow(SCR_WIDTH, SCR_HEIGHT, "LearnOpenGL", NULL, NULL);
    if (window == NULL)
    {
        std::cout << "Failed to create GLFW window" << std::endl;
        glfwTerminate();
        return -1;
    }
    glfwMakeContextCurrent(window);

    // glad: load all OpenGL function pointers
    // ---------------------------------------
    if (!gladLoadGLLoader((GLADloadproc)glfwGetProcAddress))
    {
        std::cout << "Failed to initialize GLAD" << std::endl;
        return -1;
    }

    // configure global opengl state
    // -----------------------------
    glEnable(GL_DEPTH_TEST);

    // build and compile shaders
    // -------------------------
    Shader shader("10.1.instancing.vs", "10.1.instancing.fs");

    // generate a list of 100 quad locations/translation-vectors
    // ---------------------------------------------------------
    glm::vec2 translations[100];
    int index = 0;
    float offset = 0.1f;
    for (int y = -10; y < 10; y += 2)
    {
        for (int x = -10; x < 10; x += 2)
        {
            glm::vec2 translation;
            translation.x = (float)x / 10.0f + offset;
            translation.y = (float)y / 10.0f + offset;
            translations[index++] = translation;
        }
    }

    // store instance data in an array buffer
    // --------------------------------------
    unsigned int instanceVBO;
    glGenBuffers(1, &instanceVBO);
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, instanceVBO);
    glBufferData(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, sizeof(glm::vec2) * 100, &translations[0], GL_STATIC_DRAW);
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, 0);

    // set up vertex data (and buffer(s)) and configure vertex attributes
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------
    float quadVertices[] = {
        // positions     // colors
        -0.05f,  0.05f,  1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f,
         0.05f, -0.05f,  0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f,
        -0.05f, -0.05f,  0.0f, 0.0f, 1.0f,

        -0.05f,  0.05f,  1.0f, 0.0f, 0.0f,
         0.05f, -0.05f,  0.0f, 1.0f, 0.0f,
         0.05f,  0.05f,  0.0f, 1.0f, 1.0f
    };
    unsigned int quadVAO, quadVBO;
    glGenVertexArrays(1, &quadVAO);
    glGenBuffers(1, &quadVBO);
    glBindVertexArray(quadVAO);
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, quadVBO);
    glBufferData(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, sizeof(quadVertices), quadVertices, GL_STATIC_DRAW);
    glEnableVertexAttribArray(0);
    glVertexAttribPointer(0, 2, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 5 * sizeof(float), (void*)0);
    glEnableVertexAttribArray(1);
    glVertexAttribPointer(1, 3, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 5 * sizeof(float), (void*)(2 * sizeof(float)));
    // also set instance data
    glEnableVertexAttribArray(2);
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, instanceVBO); // this attribute comes from a different vertex buffer
    glVertexAttribPointer(2, 2, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 2 * sizeof(float), (void*)0);
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, 0);
    glVertexAttribDivisor(2, 1); // tell OpenGL this is an instanced vertex attribute.


    // render loop
    // -----------
    while (!glfwWindowShouldClose(window))
    {
        // render
        // ------
        glClearColor(0.1f, 0.1f, 0.1f, 1.0f);
        glClear(GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT | GL_DEPTH_BUFFER_BIT);

        // draw 100 instanced quads
        shader.use();
        glBindVertexArray(quadVAO);
        glDrawArraysInstanced(GL_TRIANGLES, 0, 6, 100); // 100 triangles of 6 vertices each
        glBindVertexArray(0);

        // glfw: swap buffers and poll IO events (keys pressed/released, mouse moved etc.)
        // -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
        glfwSwapBuffers(window);
        glfwPollEvents();
    }

    // optional: de-allocate all resources once they've outlived their purpose:
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------------
    glDeleteVertexArrays(1, &quadVAO);
    glDeleteBuffers(1, &quadVBO);

    glfwTerminate();
    return 0;
}

// glfw: whenever the window size changed (by OS or user resize) this callback function executes
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
void framebuffer_size_callback(GLFWwindow* window, int width, int height)
{
    // make sure the viewport matches the new window dimensions; note that width and 
    // height will be significantly larger than specified on retina displays.
    glViewport(0, 0, width, height);
}

#include <demo/shader.h>如下：

#ifndef SHADER_H
#define SHADER_H

#include <glad/glad.h>
#include <glm/glm.hpp>

#include <string>
#include <fstream>
#include <sstream>
#include <iostream>

class Shader
{
public:
    unsigned int ID;
    // constructor generates the shader on the fly
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------------
    Shader(const char* vertexPath, const char* fragmentPath, const char* geometryPath = nullptr)
    {
        // 1. retrieve the vertex/fragment source code from filePath
        std::string vertexCode;
        std::string fragmentCode;
        std::string geometryCode;
        std::ifstream vShaderFile;
        std::ifstream fShaderFile;
        std::ifstream gShaderFile;
        // ensure ifstream objects can throw exceptions:
        vShaderFile.exceptions (std::ifstream::failbit | std::ifstream::badbit);
        fShaderFile.exceptions (std::ifstream::failbit | std::ifstream::badbit);
        gShaderFile.exceptions (std::ifstream::failbit | std::ifstream::badbit);
        try 
        {
            // open files
            vShaderFile.open(vertexPath);
            fShaderFile.open(fragmentPath);
            std::stringstream vShaderStream, fShaderStream;
            // read file's buffer contents into streams
            vShaderStream << vShaderFile.rdbuf();
            fShaderStream << fShaderFile.rdbuf();		
            // close file handlers
            vShaderFile.close();
            fShaderFile.close();
            // convert stream into string
            vertexCode = vShaderStream.str();
            fragmentCode = fShaderStream.str();			
            // if geometry shader path is present, also load a geometry shader
            if(geometryPath != nullptr)
            {
                gShaderFile.open(geometryPath);
                std::stringstream gShaderStream;
                gShaderStream << gShaderFile.rdbuf();
                gShaderFile.close();
                geometryCode = gShaderStream.str();
            }
        }
        catch (std::ifstream::failure& e)
        {
            std::cout << "ERROR::SHADER::FILE_NOT_SUCCESSFULLY_READ: " << e.what() << std::endl;
        }
        const char* vShaderCode = vertexCode.c_str();
        const char * fShaderCode = fragmentCode.c_str();
        // 2. compile shaders
        unsigned int vertex, fragment;
        // vertex shader
        vertex = glCreateShader(GL_VERTEX_SHADER);
        glShaderSource(vertex, 1, &vShaderCode, NULL);
        glCompileShader(vertex);
        checkCompileErrors(vertex, "VERTEX");
        // fragment Shader
        fragment = glCreateShader(GL_FRAGMENT_SHADER);
        glShaderSource(fragment, 1, &fShaderCode, NULL);
        glCompileShader(fragment);
        checkCompileErrors(fragment, "FRAGMENT");
        // if geometry shader is given, compile geometry shader
        unsigned int geometry;
        if(geometryPath != nullptr)
        {
            const char * gShaderCode = geometryCode.c_str();
            geometry = glCreateShader(GL_GEOMETRY_SHADER);
            glShaderSource(geometry, 1, &gShaderCode, NULL);
            glCompileShader(geometry);
            checkCompileErrors(geometry, "GEOMETRY");
        }
        // shader Program
        ID = glCreateProgram();
        glAttachShader(ID, vertex);
        glAttachShader(ID, fragment);
        if(geometryPath != nullptr)
            glAttachShader(ID, geometry);
        glLinkProgram(ID);
        checkCompileErrors(ID, "PROGRAM");
        // delete the shaders as they're linked into our program now and no longer necessary
        glDeleteShader(vertex);
        glDeleteShader(fragment);
        if(geometryPath != nullptr)
            glDeleteShader(geometry);

    }
    // activate the shader
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------------
    void use() 
    { 
        glUseProgram(ID); 
    }
    // utility uniform functions
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------------
    void setBool(const std::string &name, bool value) const
    {         
        glUniform1i(glGetUniformLocation(ID, name.c_str()), (int)value); 
    }
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------------
    void setInt(const std::string &name, int value) const
    { 
        glUniform1i(glGetUniformLocation(ID, name.c_str()), value); 
    }
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------------
    void setFloat(const std::string &name, float value) const
    { 
        glUniform1f(glGetUniformLocation(ID, name.c_str()), value); 
    }
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------------
    void setVec2(const std::string &name, const glm::vec2 &value) const
    { 
        glUniform2fv(glGetUniformLocation(ID, name.c_str()), 1, &value[0]); 
    }
    void setVec2(const std::string &name, float x, float y) const
    { 
        glUniform2f(glGetUniformLocation(ID, name.c_str()), x, y); 
    }
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------------
    void setVec3(const std::string &name, const glm::vec3 &value) const
    { 
        glUniform3fv(glGetUniformLocation(ID, name.c_str()), 1, &value[0]); 
    }
    void setVec3(const std::string &name, float x, float y, float z) const
    { 
        glUniform3f(glGetUniformLocation(ID, name.c_str()), x, y, z); 
    }
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------------
    void setVec4(const std::string &name, const glm::vec4 &value) const
    { 
        glUniform4fv(glGetUniformLocation(ID, name.c_str()), 1, &value[0]); 
    }
    void setVec4(const std::string &name, float x, float y, float z, float w) 
    { 
        glUniform4f(glGetUniformLocation(ID, name.c_str()), x, y, z, w); 
    }
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------------
    void setMat2(const std::string &name, const glm::mat2 &mat) const
    {
        glUniformMatrix2fv(glGetUniformLocation(ID, name.c_str()), 1, GL_FALSE, &mat[0][0]);
    }
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------------
    void setMat3(const std::string &name, const glm::mat3 &mat) const
    {
        glUniformMatrix3fv(glGetUniformLocation(ID, name.c_str()), 1, GL_FALSE, &mat[0][0]);
    }
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------------
    void setMat4(const std::string &name, const glm::mat4 &mat) const
    {
        glUniformMatrix4fv(glGetUniformLocation(ID, name.c_str()), 1, GL_FALSE, &mat[0][0]);
    }

private:
    // utility function for checking shader compilation/linking errors.
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------------
    void checkCompileErrors(GLuint shader, std::string type)
    {
        GLint success;
        GLchar infoLog[1024];
        if(type != "PROGRAM")
        {
            glGetShaderiv(shader, GL_COMPILE_STATUS, &success);
            if(!success)
            {
                glGetShaderInfoLog(shader, 1024, NULL, infoLog);
                std::cout << "ERROR::SHADER_COMPILATION_ERROR of type: " << type << "\n" << infoLog << "\n -- --------------------------------------------------- -- " << std::endl;
            }
        }
        else
        {
            glGetProgramiv(shader, GL_LINK_STATUS, &success);
            if(!success)
            {
                glGetProgramInfoLog(shader, 1024, NULL, infoLog);
                std::cout << "ERROR::PROGRAM_LINKING_ERROR of type: " << type << "\n" << infoLog << "\n -- --------------------------------------------------- -- " << std::endl;
            }
        }
    }
};
#endif

绘制小行星带

实例化渲染适合用来制作这种：所有小行星都可以使用一个模型标识，每个小行星可以再使用不同的变换矩阵来进行少许的变化。
首先不使用实例化渲染，模拟小行星绕着行行飞行的场景。这个场景会包含一个大的行星模型，和小行星的岩石模型。再用模型加载器来加载模型。
为了最终的效果，可以为每个小行星生成一个变换矩阵，用作它们的模型矩阵。变换矩阵首先将小行星位移到小行星带中的某处，还需要加上一个小的随机偏移值到这个偏移量上，让圆环更加自然。接着，应用一个随机缩放，并以一个旋转向量为轴进行一个随机旋转。最终的变换矩阵不仅能将小行星变换到行星的周围，还能看着更自然。每一个小行星都与众不同。

unsigned int amount = 1000;
glm::mat4 *modelMatrices;
modelMatrices = new glm::mat4[amount];
srand(glfwGetTime()); // 初始化随机种子    
float radius = 50.0;
float offset = 2.5f;
for(unsigned int i = 0; i < amount; i++)
{
    glm::mat4 model;
    // 1. 位移：分布在半径为 'radius' 的圆形上，偏移的范围是 [-offset, offset]
    float angle = (float)i / (float)amount * 360.0f;
    float displacement = (rand() % (int)(2 * offset * 100)) / 100.0f - offset;
    float x = sin(angle) * radius + displacement;
    displacement = (rand() % (int)(2 * offset * 100)) / 100.0f - offset;
    float y = displacement * 0.4f; // 让行星带的高度比x和z的宽度要小
    displacement = (rand() % (int)(2 * offset * 100)) / 100.0f - offset;
    float z = cos(angle) * radius + displacement;
    model = glm::translate(model, glm::vec3(x, y, z));

    // 2. 缩放：在 0.05 和 0.25f 之间缩放
    float scale = (rand() % 20) / 100.0f + 0.05;
    model = glm::scale(model, glm::vec3(scale));

    // 3. 旋转：绕着一个（半）随机选择的旋转轴向量进行随机的旋转
    float rotAngle = (rand() % 360);
    model = glm::rotate(model, rotAngle, glm::vec3(0.4f, 0.6f, 0.8f));

    // 4. 添加到矩阵的数组中
    modelMatrices[i] = model;
}  

上述代码我们只是将小行星的x和z位置变换到了一个半径为radius的圆形上，并且在半径的基础上偏移了-offset到offset。我们让y偏移的影响更小一点，让小行星带更扁平一点。接下来，我们应用了缩放和旋转变换，并将最终的变换矩阵储存在modelMatrices中，这个数组的大小是amount。这里，我们一共生成1000个模型矩阵，每个小行星一个。

在加载完行星和岩石模型，并编译完着色器之后，渲染的代码看起来是这样的：

// 绘制行星
shader.use();
glm::mat4 model;
model = glm::translate(model, glm::vec3(0.0f, -3.0f, 0.0f));
model = glm::scale(model, glm::vec3(4.0f, 4.0f, 4.0f));
shader.setMat4("model", model);
planet.Draw(shader);

// 绘制小行星
for(unsigned int i = 0; i < amount; i++)
{
    shader.setMat4("model", modelMatrices[i]);
    rock.Draw(shader);
}  

上述代码，首先绘制了行星的模型，并对它进行位移和缩放，下面绘制amount数量的岩石模型。在绘制每个岩石之前，首先需要在着色器内设置对应的模型变换矩阵。
这个场景每帧包含1001次渲染调用，其中1000个是岩石模型：

#include <glad/glad.h>
#include <GLFW/glfw3.h>
#include <stb_image.h>

#include <glm/glm.hpp>
#include <glm/gtc/matrix_transform.hpp>
#include <glm/gtc/type_ptr.hpp>

#include <learnopengl/shader.h>
#include <learnopengl/camera.h>
#include <learnopengl/model.h>

#include <iostream>

void framebuffer_size_callback(GLFWwindow* window, int width, int height);
void mouse_callback(GLFWwindow* window, double xpos, double ypos);
void scroll_callback(GLFWwindow* window, double xoffset, double yoffset);
void processInput(GLFWwindow *window);

// settings
const unsigned int SCR_WIDTH = 800;
const unsigned int SCR_HEIGHT = 600;

// camera
Camera camera(glm::vec3(0.0f, 0.0f, 55.0f));
float lastX = (float)SCR_WIDTH / 2.0;
float lastY = (float)SCR_HEIGHT / 2.0;
bool firstMouse = true;

// timing
float deltaTime = 0.0f;
float lastFrame = 0.0f;

int main()
{
    // glfw: initialize and configure
    // ------------------------------
    glfwInit();
    glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MAJOR, 3);
    glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MINOR, 3);
    glfwWindowHint(GLFW_OPENGL_PROFILE, GLFW_OPENGL_CORE_PROFILE);

#ifdef __APPLE__
    glfwWindowHint(GLFW_OPENGL_FORWARD_COMPAT, GL_TRUE);
#endif

    // glfw window creation
    // --------------------
    GLFWwindow* window = glfwCreateWindow(SCR_WIDTH, SCR_HEIGHT, "LearnOpenGL", NULL, NULL);
    if (window == NULL)
    {
        std::cout << "Failed to create GLFW window" << std::endl;
        glfwTerminate();
        return -1;
    }
    glfwMakeContextCurrent(window);
    glfwSetFramebufferSizeCallback(window, framebuffer_size_callback);
    glfwSetCursorPosCallback(window, mouse_callback);
    glfwSetScrollCallback(window, scroll_callback);

    // tell GLFW to capture our mouse
    glfwSetInputMode(window, GLFW_CURSOR, GLFW_CURSOR_DISABLED);

    // glad: load all OpenGL function pointers
    // ---------------------------------------
    if (!gladLoadGLLoader((GLADloadproc)glfwGetProcAddress))
    {
        std::cout << "Failed to initialize GLAD" << std::endl;
        return -1;
    }

    // configure global opengl state
    // -----------------------------
    glEnable(GL_DEPTH_TEST);

    // build and compile shaders
    // -------------------------
    Shader shader("10.2.instancing.vs", "10.2.instancing.fs");

    // load models
    // -----------
    Model rock(FileSystem::getPath("resources/objects/rock/rock.obj"));
    Model planet(FileSystem::getPath("resources/objects/planet/planet.obj"));

    // generate a large list of semi-random model transformation matrices
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------
    unsigned int amount = 1000;
    glm::mat4* modelMatrices;
    modelMatrices = new glm::mat4[amount];
    srand(static_cast<unsigned int>(glfwGetTime())); // initialize random seed
    float radius = 50.0;
    float offset = 2.5f;
    for (unsigned int i = 0; i < amount; i++)
    {
        glm::mat4 model = glm::mat4(1.0f);
        // 1. translation: displace along circle with 'radius' in range [-offset, offset]
        float angle = (float)i / (float)amount * 360.0f;
        float displacement = (rand() % (int)(2 * offset * 100)) / 100.0f - offset;
        float x = sin(angle) * radius + displacement;
        displacement = (rand() % (int)(2 * offset * 100)) / 100.0f - offset;
        float y = displacement * 0.4f; // keep height of asteroid field smaller compared to width of x and z
        displacement = (rand() % (int)(2 * offset * 100)) / 100.0f - offset;
        float z = cos(angle) * radius + displacement;
        model = glm::translate(model, glm::vec3(x, y, z));

        // 2. scale: Scale between 0.05 and 0.25f
        float scale = static_cast<float>((rand() % 20) / 100.0 + 0.05);
        model = glm::scale(model, glm::vec3(scale));

        // 3. rotation: add random rotation around a (semi)randomly picked rotation axis vector
        float rotAngle = static_cast<float>((rand() % 360));
        model = glm::rotate(model, rotAngle, glm::vec3(0.4f, 0.6f, 0.8f));

        // 4. now add to list of matrices
        modelMatrices[i] = model;
    }

    // render loop
    // -----------
    while (!glfwWindowShouldClose(window))
    {
        // per-frame time logic
        // --------------------
        float currentFrame = static_cast<float>(glfwGetTime());
        deltaTime = currentFrame - lastFrame;
        lastFrame = currentFrame;

        // input
        // -----
        processInput(window);

        // render
        // ------
        glClearColor(0.1f, 0.1f, 0.1f, 1.0f);
        glClear(GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT | GL_DEPTH_BUFFER_BIT);

        // configure transformation matrices
        glm::mat4 projection = glm::perspective(glm::radians(45.0f), (float)SCR_WIDTH / (float)SCR_HEIGHT, 0.1f, 1000.0f);
        glm::mat4 view = camera.GetViewMatrix();;
        shader.use();
        shader.setMat4("projection", projection);
        shader.setMat4("view", view);

        // draw planet
        glm::mat4 model = glm::mat4(1.0f);
        model = glm::translate(model, glm::vec3(0.0f, -3.0f, 0.0f));
        model = glm::scale(model, glm::vec3(4.0f, 4.0f, 4.0f));
        shader.setMat4("model", model);
        planet.Draw(shader);

        // draw meteorites
        for (unsigned int i = 0; i < amount; i++)
        {
            shader.setMat4("model", modelMatrices[i]);
            rock.Draw(shader);
        }     

        // glfw: swap buffers and poll IO events (keys pressed/released, mouse moved etc.)
        // -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
        glfwSwapBuffers(window);
        glfwPollEvents();
    }

    glfwTerminate();
    return 0;
}

// process all input: query GLFW whether relevant keys are pressed/released this frame and react accordingly
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
void processInput(GLFWwindow *window)
{
    if (glfwGetKey(window, GLFW_KEY_ESCAPE) == GLFW_PRESS)
        glfwSetWindowShouldClose(window, true);

    if (glfwGetKey(window, GLFW_KEY_W) == GLFW_PRESS)
        camera.ProcessKeyboard(FORWARD, deltaTime);
    if (glfwGetKey(window, GLFW_KEY_S) == GLFW_PRESS)
        camera.ProcessKeyboard(BACKWARD, deltaTime);
    if (glfwGetKey(window, GLFW_KEY_A) == GLFW_PRESS)
        camera.ProcessKeyboard(LEFT, deltaTime);
    if (glfwGetKey(window, GLFW_KEY_D) == GLFW_PRESS)
        camera.ProcessKeyboard(RIGHT, deltaTime);
}

// glfw: whenever the window size changed (by OS or user resize) this callback function executes
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
void framebuffer_size_callback(GLFWwindow* window, int width, int height)
{
    // make sure the viewport matches the new window dimensions; note that width and 
    // height will be significantly larger than specified on retina displays.
    glViewport(0, 0, width, height);
}

// glfw: whenever the mouse moves, this callback is called
// -------------------------------------------------------
void mouse_callback(GLFWwindow* window, double xposIn, double yposIn)
{
    float xpos = static_cast<float>(xposIn);
    float ypos = static_cast<float>(yposIn);

    if (firstMouse)
    {
        lastX = xpos;
        lastY = ypos;
        firstMouse = false;
    }

    float xoffset = xpos - lastX;
    float yoffset = lastY - ypos; // reversed since y-coordinates go from bottom to top

    lastX = xpos;
    lastY = ypos;

    camera.ProcessMouseMovement(xoffset, yoffset);
}

// glfw: whenever the mouse scroll wheel scrolls, this callback is called
// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
void scroll_callback(GLFWwindow* window, double xoffset, double yoffset)
{
    camera.ProcessMouseScroll(static_cast<float>(yoffset));
}

当增加模型数量时，场景首先不能够流畅运行，帧数下降的很厉害。如果把amount设置成2000，则场景会慢到移动都很困难的程度。

现在使用实例化渲染相同的场景。首先对顶点着色器进行修改：

#version 330 core
layout (location = 0) in vec3 aPos;
layout (location = 2) in vec2 aTexCoords;
layout (location = 3) in mat4 instanceMatrix;

out vec2 TexCoords;

uniform mat4 projection;
uniform mat4 view;

void main()
{
    gl_Position = projection * view * instanceMatrix * vec4(aPos, 1.0); 
    TexCoords = aTexCoords;
}

不再使用模型uniform变量，改为一个mat4的顶点属性，让我们能够存储一个实例化数组的变换矩阵。然而，当我们顶点属性的类型大于vec4时，就要多进行一步处理了。顶点属性最大允许的数据大小等于一个vec4。因为一个mat4本质上是4个vec4，我们需要为这个矩阵预留4个顶点属性。因为我们将它的位置值设置为3，矩阵每一列的顶点属性位置值就是3、4、5和6。
下面，需要为这四个顶点属性设置属性指针，并将它们设置为实例化数组：

// 顶点缓冲对象
unsigned int buffer;
glGenBuffers(1, &buffer);
glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, buffer);
glBufferData(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, amount * sizeof(glm::mat4), &modelMatrices[0], GL_STATIC_DRAW);

for(unsigned int i = 0; i < rock.meshes.size(); i++)
{
    unsigned int VAO = rock.meshes[i].VAO;
    glBindVertexArray(VAO);
    // 顶点属性
    GLsizei vec4Size = sizeof(glm::vec4);
    glEnableVertexAttribArray(3); 
    glVertexAttribPointer(3, 4, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 4 * vec4Size, (void*)0);
    glEnableVertexAttribArray(4); 
    glVertexAttribPointer(4, 4, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 4 * vec4Size, (void*)(vec4Size));
    glEnableVertexAttribArray(5); 
    glVertexAttribPointer(5, 4, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 4 * vec4Size, (void*)(2 * vec4Size));
    glEnableVertexAttribArray(6); 
    glVertexAttribPointer(6, 4, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, 4 * vec4Size, (void*)(3 * vec4Size));

    glVertexAttribDivisor(3, 1);
    glVertexAttribDivisor(4, 1);
    glVertexAttribDivisor(5, 1);
    glVertexAttribDivisor(6, 1);

    glBindVertexArray(0);
}  

这里我们将Mesh的VAO从私有变量改为了公有变量，让我们能够访问它的顶点数组对象。这并不是最好的解决方案，只是为了配合本小节的一个简单的改动。除此之外代码就应该很清楚了。我们告诉了OpenGL应该如何解释每个缓冲顶点属性的缓冲，并且告诉它这些顶点属性是实例化数组。
接下来，我们再次使用网格的VAO，这一次使用glDrawElementsInstanced进行绘制：

// 绘制小行星
instanceShader.use();
for(unsigned int i = 0; i < rock.meshes.size(); i++)
{
    glBindVertexArray(rock.meshes[i].VAO);
    glDrawElementsInstanced(
        GL_TRIANGLES, rock.meshes[i].indices.size(), GL_UNSIGNED_INT, 0, amount
    );
}

没有实例化渲染的时候，我们只能流畅渲染1000到1500个小行星。而使用了实例化渲染之后，我们可以将这个值设置为100000，每个岩石模型有576个顶点，每帧加起来大概要绘制5700万个顶点，但性能却没有受到任何影响
基本上只要场景中有很多重复的形状，都能够使用实例化渲染来提高性能。

#include <glad/glad.h>
#include <GLFW/glfw3.h>
#include <stb_image.h>

#include <glm/glm.hpp>
#include <glm/gtc/matrix_transform.hpp>
#include <glm/gtc/type_ptr.hpp>

#include <learnopengl/shader.h>
#include <learnopengl/camera.h>
#include <learnopengl/model.h>

#include <iostream>

void framebuffer_size_callback(GLFWwindow* window, int width, int height);
void mouse_callback(GLFWwindow* window, double xpos, double ypos);
void scroll_callback(GLFWwindow* window, double xoffset, double yoffset);
void processInput(GLFWwindow *window);

// settings
const unsigned int SCR_WIDTH = 800;
const unsigned int SCR_HEIGHT = 600;

// camera
Camera camera(glm::vec3(0.0f, 0.0f, 155.0f));
float lastX = (float)SCR_WIDTH / 2.0;
float lastY = (float)SCR_HEIGHT / 2.0;
bool firstMouse = true;

// timing
float deltaTime = 0.0f;
float lastFrame = 0.0f;

int main()
{
    // glfw: initialize and configure
    // ------------------------------
    glfwInit();
    glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MAJOR, 3);
    glfwWindowHint(GLFW_CONTEXT_VERSION_MINOR, 3);
    glfwWindowHint(GLFW_OPENGL_PROFILE, GLFW_OPENGL_CORE_PROFILE);

#ifdef __APPLE__
    glfwWindowHint(GLFW_OPENGL_FORWARD_COMPAT, GL_TRUE);
#endif

    // glfw window creation
    // --------------------
    GLFWwindow* window = glfwCreateWindow(SCR_WIDTH, SCR_HEIGHT, "LearnOpenGL", NULL, NULL);
    if (window == NULL)
    {
        std::cout << "Failed to create GLFW window" << std::endl;
        glfwTerminate();
        return -1;
    }
    glfwMakeContextCurrent(window);
    glfwSetFramebufferSizeCallback(window, framebuffer_size_callback);
    glfwSetCursorPosCallback(window, mouse_callback);
    glfwSetScrollCallback(window, scroll_callback);

    // tell GLFW to capture our mouse
    glfwSetInputMode(window, GLFW_CURSOR, GLFW_CURSOR_DISABLED);

    // glad: load all OpenGL function pointers
    // ---------------------------------------
    if (!gladLoadGLLoader((GLADloadproc)glfwGetProcAddress))
    {
        std::cout << "Failed to initialize GLAD" << std::endl;
        return -1;
    }

    // configure global opengl state
    // -----------------------------
    glEnable(GL_DEPTH_TEST);

    // build and compile shaders
    // -------------------------
    Shader asteroidShader("10.3.asteroids.vs", "10.3.asteroids.fs");
    Shader planetShader("10.3.planet.vs", "10.3.planet.fs");

    // load models
    // -----------
    Model rock(FileSystem::getPath("resources/objects/rock/rock.obj"));
    Model planet(FileSystem::getPath("resources/objects/planet/planet.obj"));

    // generate a large list of semi-random model transformation matrices
    // ------------------------------------------------------------------
    unsigned int amount = 100000;
    glm::mat4* modelMatrices;
    modelMatrices = new glm::mat4[amount];
    srand(static_cast<unsigned int>(glfwGetTime())); // initialize random seed
    float radius = 150.0;
    float offset = 25.0f;
    for (unsigned int i = 0; i < amount; i++)
    {
        glm::mat4 model = glm::mat4(1.0f);
        // 1. translation: displace along circle with 'radius' in range [-offset, offset]
        float angle = (float)i / (float)amount * 360.0f;
        float displacement = (rand() % (int)(2 * offset * 100)) / 100.0f - offset;
        float x = sin(angle) * radius + displacement;
        displacement = (rand() % (int)(2 * offset * 100)) / 100.0f - offset;
        float y = displacement * 0.4f; // keep height of asteroid field smaller compared to width of x and z
        displacement = (rand() % (int)(2 * offset * 100)) / 100.0f - offset;
        float z = cos(angle) * radius + displacement;
        model = glm::translate(model, glm::vec3(x, y, z));

        // 2. scale: Scale between 0.05 and 0.25f
        float scale = static_cast<float>((rand() % 20) / 100.0 + 0.05);
        model = glm::scale(model, glm::vec3(scale));

        // 3. rotation: add random rotation around a (semi)randomly picked rotation axis vector
        float rotAngle = static_cast<float>((rand() % 360));
        model = glm::rotate(model, rotAngle, glm::vec3(0.4f, 0.6f, 0.8f));

        // 4. now add to list of matrices
        modelMatrices[i] = model;
    }

    // configure instanced array
    // -------------------------
    unsigned int buffer;
    glGenBuffers(1, &buffer);
    glBindBuffer(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, buffer);
    glBufferData(GL_ARRAY_BUFFER, amount * sizeof(glm::mat4), &modelMatrices[0], GL_STATIC_DRAW);

    // set transformation matrices as an instance vertex attribute (with divisor 1)
    // note: we're cheating a little by taking the, now publicly declared, VAO of the model's mesh(es) and adding new vertexAttribPointers
    // normally you'd want to do this in a more organized fashion, but for learning purposes this will do.
    // -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    for (unsigned int i = 0; i < rock.meshes.size(); i++)
    {
        unsigned int VAO = rock.meshes[i].VAO;
        glBindVertexArray(VAO);
        // set attribute pointers for matrix (4 times vec4)
        glEnableVertexAttribArray(3);
        glVertexAttribPointer(3, 4, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, sizeof(glm::mat4), (void*)0);
        glEnableVertexAttribArray(4);
        glVertexAttribPointer(4, 4, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, sizeof(glm::mat4), (void*)(sizeof(glm::vec4)));
        glEnableVertexAttribArray(5);
        glVertexAttribPointer(5, 4, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, sizeof(glm::mat4), (void*)(2 * sizeof(glm::vec4)));
        glEnableVertexAttribArray(6);
        glVertexAttribPointer(6, 4, GL_FLOAT, GL_FALSE, sizeof(glm::mat4), (void*)(3 * sizeof(glm::vec4)));

        glVertexAttribDivisor(3, 1);
        glVertexAttribDivisor(4, 1);
        glVertexAttribDivisor(5, 1);
        glVertexAttribDivisor(6, 1);

        glBindVertexArray(0);
    }

    // render loop
    // -----------
    while (!glfwWindowShouldClose(window))
    {
        // per-frame time logic
        // --------------------
        float currentFrame = static_cast<float>(glfwGetTime());
        deltaTime = currentFrame - lastFrame;
        lastFrame = currentFrame;

        // input
        // -----
        processInput(window);

        // render
        // ------
        glClearColor(0.1f, 0.1f, 0.1f, 1.0f);
        glClear(GL_COLOR_BUFFER_BIT | GL_DEPTH_BUFFER_BIT);

        // configure transformation matrices
        glm::mat4 projection = glm::perspective(glm::radians(45.0f), (float)SCR_WIDTH / (float)SCR_HEIGHT, 0.1f, 1000.0f);
        glm::mat4 view = camera.GetViewMatrix();
        asteroidShader.use();
        asteroidShader.setMat4("projection", projection);
        asteroidShader.setMat4("view", view);
        planetShader.use();
        planetShader.setMat4("projection", projection);
        planetShader.setMat4("view", view);
        
        // draw planet
        glm::mat4 model = glm::mat4(1.0f);
        model = glm::translate(model, glm::vec3(0.0f, -3.0f, 0.0f));
        model = glm::scale(model, glm::vec3(4.0f, 4.0f, 4.0f));
        planetShader.setMat4("model", model);
        planet.Draw(planetShader);

        // draw meteorites
        asteroidShader.use();
        asteroidShader.setInt("texture_diffuse1", 0);
        glActiveTexture(GL_TEXTURE0);
        glBindTexture(GL_TEXTURE_2D, rock.textures_loaded[0].id); // note: we also made the textures_loaded vector public (instead of private) from the model class.
        for (unsigned int i = 0; i < rock.meshes.size(); i++)
        {
            glBindVertexArray(rock.meshes[i].VAO);
            glDrawElementsInstanced(GL_TRIANGLES, static_cast<unsigned int>(rock.meshes[i].indices.size()), GL_UNSIGNED_INT, 0, amount);
            glBindVertexArray(0);
        }

        // glfw: swap buffers and poll IO events (keys pressed/released, mouse moved etc.)
        // -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
        glfwSwapBuffers(window);
        glfwPollEvents();
    }

    glfwTerminate();
    return 0;
}

// process all input: query GLFW whether relevant keys are pressed/released this frame and react accordingly
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
void processInput(GLFWwindow *window)
{
    if (glfwGetKey(window, GLFW_KEY_ESCAPE) == GLFW_PRESS)
        glfwSetWindowShouldClose(window, true);

    if (glfwGetKey(window, GLFW_KEY_W) == GLFW_PRESS)
        camera.ProcessKeyboard(FORWARD, deltaTime);
    if (glfwGetKey(window, GLFW_KEY_S) == GLFW_PRESS)
        camera.ProcessKeyboard(BACKWARD, deltaTime);
    if (glfwGetKey(window, GLFW_KEY_A) == GLFW_PRESS)
        camera.ProcessKeyboard(LEFT, deltaTime);
    if (glfwGetKey(window, GLFW_KEY_D) == GLFW_PRESS)
        camera.ProcessKeyboard(RIGHT, deltaTime);
}

// glfw: whenever the window size changed (by OS or user resize) this callback function executes
// ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
void framebuffer_size_callback(GLFWwindow* window, int width, int height)
{
    // make sure the viewport matches the new window dimensions; note that width and 
    // height will be significantly larger than specified on retina displays.
    glViewport(0, 0, width, height);
}

// glfw: whenever the mouse moves, this callback is called
// -------------------------------------------------------
void mouse_callback(GLFWwindow* window, double xposIn, double yposIn)
{
    float xpos = static_cast<float>(xposIn);
    float ypos = static_cast<float>(yposIn);

    if (firstMouse)
    {
        lastX = xpos;
        lastY = ypos;
        firstMouse = false;
    }

    float xoffset = xpos - lastX;
    float yoffset = lastY - ypos; // reversed since y-coordinates go from bottom to top

    lastX = xpos;
    lastY = ypos;

    camera.ProcessMouseMovement(xoffset, yoffset);
}

// glfw: whenever the mouse scroll wheel scrolls, this callback is called
// ----------------------------------------------------------------------
void scroll_callback(GLFWwindow* window, double xoffset, double yoffset)
{
    camera.ProcessMouseScroll(static_cast<float>(yoffset));
}