【数学】函数极限（宇哥笔记）

定义及使用

定义

$$\begin{array}{rl}& \underset{x\to \cdot }{\lim }f(x)=A⟺\\ & \forall \epsilon >0,x\to \cdot 时,|f(x)-A|<\epsilon \\ & \{\begin{array}{l}x\to x_0:\exists \delta >0,0<|x-x_0|<\delta \\ x\to \infty :\exists x>0,|x|>x\end{array}\end{array}$$

性质

唯一性

$$\begin{array}{rl}& A唯一：左极限、右极限；左导、右导\\ [例]& 求\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\tan \pi x}{|x|(x^2-1)}\\ & I_{+}=\underset{x\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{\tan \pi x}{x(x^2-1)}=\underset{x\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{\pi x}{x(-1)}=-\pi \\ & I_{-}=\underset{x\to 0^{-}}{\lim }\frac{\pi x}{(-x)(-1)}=\pi \\ & ⟹I不\exists \\ [注]& 如|x|,e^x,\arctan x需要考虑这种情况\end{array}$$

A是一个数

$$\begin{array}{rl}& A是一个数，记\underset{x\to \cdot }{\lim }f(x)=A\\ [例]& 已知\underset{x\to 1}{\lim }f(x)存在，f(x)=\frac{x-\arctan (x-1)-1}{(x-1{)}^3}+2x^2{e}^{x-1}\cdot \underset{x\to 1}{\lim }f(x)\\ & \underset{x\to 1}{\lim }f(x)=\underset{x\to 1}{\lim }\frac{(x-1)-\arctan (x-1)}{(x-1{)}^3}+A\underset{x\to 1}{\lim }2x^2{e}^{x-1}\\ & ⟹A=\underset{t\to 0}{\lim }\frac{t-\arctan t}{t^3}+2A\\ & ⟹A=-\frac{1}{3}\\ & \therefore f(x)=\frac{x-\arctan (x-1)-1}{(x-1{)}^3}-\frac{2}{3}{x}^2{e}^{x-1}\\ [注]& 以后会知道，"只要存在"，则有\underset{x\to \cdot }{\lim }f(x)=A,\underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }{x}_n=A\\ & f^{\prime \prime }(x_0)=A;{\int }_a^{b}f(x)dx=A;{\iint }_{D}f(x,y)d\sigma =A\end{array}$$

有界性

$$\begin{array}{rl}& x\to \cdot ,|f(x)|\le M\\ [例]& 若\underset{x\to x_0}{\lim }\frac{f(x)}{x-x_0}=A(存在),求\underset{x\to x_0}{\lim }f(x)\\ & \underset{x\to x_0}{\lim }f(x)=\underset{x\to x_0}{\lim }\frac{f(x)}{x-x_0}\cdot (x-x_0)=0(前者有界函数，后者无穷小)\\ [注]& 若增加“f(x)在x_0处连续”⟹f(x)=\underset{x\to x_0}{\lim }f(x)=0\end{array}$$

局部保号性

$$\begin{array}{rl}& x\to \cdot ,若A>0,⟹f(x)>0(局部保号)(不等式脱帽法)\\ [例]& 证明：当x\to 0^{+}时，0<{\tan }^{2}x-x^2<x^4成立\\ & \underset{x\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{{\tan }^{2}x-x^2}{x^4}=\underset{x\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{(\tan x+x)(\tan x-x)}{x^4}=\underset{x\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{2x\cdot \frac{1}{3}{x}^3}{x^4}=\frac{2}{3}<1\\ & 故\underset{x\to 0^{+}}{\lim }[\frac{{\tan }^{2}x-x^2}{x^4}-1]<0⟹\frac{{\tan }^{2}x-x^2}{x^4}-1<0\\ & 即{\tan }^{2}x-x^2<x^4\\ & \because x\to 0^{+}时，\tan x>x,故{\tan }^{2}x>x^2⟹0<{\tan }^{2}x-x^2<x^4\end{array}$$

等式脱帽法

$$\begin{array}{rl}& f(x)=A+\alpha ,\underset{x\to \cdot }{\lim }\alpha =0(等式脱帽法)\\ [例]& 设\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\ln [1+\frac{f(x)}{\sin x}]}{a^x-1}=A,a>0,a̸=1,求\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{f(x)}{x^2}\\ & \frac{\ln [1+\frac{f(x)}{\sin x}]}{a^x-1}=A+\alpha ⟹\ln [1+\frac{f(x)}{\sin x}]=(a^x-1)(A+\alpha )\\ & 1+\frac{f(x)}{\sin x}=e^{(a^x-1)(A+\alpha )}\\ & f(x)=[e^{(a^x-1)(A+\alpha )}-1]\sin x\\ & 则\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{f(x)}{x^2}=\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{[e^{(a^x-1)(A+\alpha )}-1]\sin x}{x^2}=\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{(a^x-1)(A+\alpha )}{x}=A\cdot \ln a\end{array}$$

计算

七种未定式

$$\begin{array}{rl}& 分别为：\frac{0}{0},\frac{\infty }{\infty },\infty \cdot 0,\infty -\infty ,{\infty }^0,0^0,1^{\infty }\\ 技巧：& 其中前两种用常规方法如泰勒公式、洛必达法则直接求解\\ & 第三、四种情况遇到分数考虑通分、倒代换等，想办法等价替换、化简\\ & 后三种情况一律考虑取对数\\ & 其中遇到根号的情况考虑有理化、通分，\\ & 遇到无穷大的情况考虑化为无穷小，如除以某个数，倒代换，通分，有理化\\ & 遇到三角函数考虑无穷小乘以有界量\\ & 复杂函数可以考虑导数定义法\\ & 加减中把极限存在（不管是否为0）的部分拆项先算出来，乘除中把极限存在部分先分离出来\end{array}$$

化简先行

等价替换

$$\begin{array}{rl}& \sin \circ \sim \circ \sim \tan \circ \sim \arcsin \circ \sim \arctan \circ \sim \ln (1+\circ )\sim e^{\circ }-1\\ & a^{\circ }-1=e^{\circ \ln a}-1\sim \circ \ln a\\ & (1+\circ {)}^k-1=e^{k\ln (1+\circ )}-1\sim k\ln (1+\circ )\sim k\circ \\ & 1-cos\circ =2si{n}^2(\frac{\circ }{2})\sim 2(\frac{\circ }{2}{)}^2=\frac{{\circ }^2}{2}\\ & ——————————以下是进阶版——————————\\ & x-\sin x\sim \frac{1}{6}{x}^{3}x-\arcsin x\sim -\frac{1}{6}{x}^{3}x-\tan x\sim -\frac{1}{3}{x}^3\\ & x-\arctan x\sim \frac{1}{3}{x}^{3}x-\ln (1+x)\sim \frac{1}{2}{x}^2\tan x-\sin x\sim \frac{1}{2}{x}^3\\ & 1-{\cos }^{\alpha }x\sim \frac{\alpha }{2}{x}^2{e}^x-1-x\sim \frac{1}{2}{x}^2\sqrt{1+x}-1-\frac{1}{2}x\sim -\frac{1}{8}{x}^2\\ & f(x)\to 1时,\ln f(x)\sim f(x)-1\\ [补]& 若\alpha =\circ (\beta )(即\underset{x\to \cdot }{\lim }\frac{\alpha }{\beta }=0),则\alpha +\beta \sim \beta \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{rl}1.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{(3+2\tan x{)}^x-3^x}{3{\sin }^{2}x+x^3\cos \frac{1}{x}}\\ & 由\frac{x^3\cos \frac{1}{x}}{3{\sin }^{2}x}=\frac{1}{3}\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }x\cos \frac{1}{x}=0\\ & 则I=\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{3^x[(1+\frac{2}{3}\tan x{)}^x-1]}{3x^2}\\ & =\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{e^{x\ln (1+\frac{2}{3}\tan x)}-1}{3x^2}\\ & =\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{x\ln (1+\frac{2}{3}\tan x)}{3x^2}=\frac{2}{9}\\ 2.& \underset{x\to 1^{-}}{\lim }\ln x\ln (1-x)\\ =& \underset{x\to 1^{-}}{\lim }\ln (1+x-1)\ln (1-x)\\ =& \underset{x\to 1^{-}}{\lim }(x-1)\ln (1-x)\underrightarrow{t=1-x}-\underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }t\ln t=0\\ 3.& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }{e}^{-x}(1+\frac{1}{x}{)}^{x^2}\\ =& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }{e}^{-x}{e}^{x^2\ln (1+\frac{1}{x})}\\ =& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }{e}^{x^2\ln (1+\frac{1}{x})-x}\\ & 且\underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }(x^2\ln (1+\frac{1}{x})-x)\\ =& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }{x}^2(\ln (1+\frac{1}{x})-\frac{1}{x})\\ =& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }{x}^2(-\frac{1}{2})(\frac{1}{x}{)}^2=-\frac{1}{2}\\ 4.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\sin x+x^2\sin \frac{1}{x}}{(1+\cos x)\ln (1+x)}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{x}{2x}=\frac{1}{2}(无穷小乘以有界量)\\ 5.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{1}{x^3}[(\frac{2+\cos x}{3}{)}^x-1]\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{1}{x^3}[(1+\frac{\cos x-1}{3}{)}^x-1]\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{1}{x^3}\cdot x\cdot \frac{\cos x-1}{3}\\ =& -\frac{1}{6}\\ 6.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\sqrt{\cos x}-\sqrt[3]{\cos x}}{{\sin }^{2}x}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\sqrt{\cos x}-1+1-\sqrt[3]{\cos x}}{x^2}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\sqrt{\cos x}-1}{x^2}+\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{1-\sqrt[3]{\cos x}}{x^2}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{-\frac{1}{4}{x}^2}{x^2}+\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\frac{1}{6}{x}^2}{x^2}\\ =& -\frac{1}{12}\end{array}$$

恒等变形

提取公因式

换元（倒代换、平移替换）

通分

因式分解公式

取对数

有理化

$$\begin{array}{rl}1.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }(\frac{1+x}{1-e^{-x}}-\frac{1}{x})\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{x+x^2-1+e^{-x}}{(1-e^{-x})\cdot x}(通分)\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{1+2x-e^{-x}}{2x}=1+\frac{1}{2}=\frac{3}{2}\\ 2.& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }{e}^{-x}(1+\frac{1}{x}{)}^{x^2}\\ =& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }{e}^{-x}{e}^{x^2\ln (1+\frac{1}{x})}(取对数)\\ =& e^{{\lim }_{x\to \infty }[x^2\ln (1+\frac{1}{x})-x]}\\ \underrightarrow{令x=\frac{1}{t}}& e^{{\lim }_{t\to 0}[\frac{\ln (1+t)}{t^2}-\frac{1}{t}]}(倒代换)\\ =& e^{{\lim }_{t\to 0}\frac{\ln (1+t)-t}{t^2}}=e^{-\frac{1}{2}}\\ 3.& \underset{x\to 0^{+}}{\lim }{x}^{\ln (\frac{\ln x-1}{\ln x+1})}\\ =& e^{{\lim }_{x\to 0^{+}}\ln (\frac{\ln x-1}{\ln x+1})\cdot \ln x}\\ =& e^{{\lim }_{x\to 0^{+}}\ln (1-\frac{2}{\ln x+1})\cdot \ln x}\\ =& e^{{\lim }_{x\to 0^{+}}\frac{-2}{\ln x+1}\cdot \ln x}=e^{-2}\\ 4.& \underset{x\to 0^{+}}{\lim }(\frac{\sin x}{x}{)}^{\frac{1}{1-\cos x}}\\ =& e^{{\lim }_{x\to 0^{+}}\frac{1}{1-\cos x}(\frac{\sin x}{x}-1)}\\ =& e^{{\lim }_{x\to 0^{+}}\frac{\sin x-x}{\frac{1}{2}{x}^2\cdot x}}\\ =& e^{-\frac{1}{3}}\\ 5.& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }(\sqrt[6]{x^6+x^5}-\sqrt[6]{x^6-x^5})\\ \underrightarrow{令x=\frac{1}{t}}& \underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\sqrt[6]{\frac{1}{t^6}+\frac{1}{t^5}}-\sqrt[6]{\frac{1}{t^6}-\frac{1}{t^5}}\\ =& \underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }(\frac{\sqrt[6]{1+t}}{t}-\frac{\sqrt[6]{1-t}}{t})\\ =& \underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{(1+t{)}^{\frac{1}{6}}-(1-t{)}^{\frac{1}{6}}}{t}\\ =& \underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{1+\frac{1}{6}t-(1-\frac{1}{6}t)+\circ (t)}{t}\\ =& \underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{\frac{1}{3}t+\circ (t)}{t}=\frac{1}{3}\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{rl}6.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\sqrt{1+\tan x}-\sqrt{1+\sin x}}{x\ln (1+x)-x^2}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{1}{-\frac{1}{2}{x}^3}\cdot \frac{\tan x-\sin x}{\sqrt{1+\tan x}+\sqrt{1+\sin x}}=-\frac{1}{2}\\ 7.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\sqrt{\cos x}-\sqrt[3]{\cos x}}{{\sin }^{2}x}\\ [分析]& 令\sqrt[6]{\cos x}=t,原式=\underset{t\to 1^{-}}{\lim }\frac{t^3-t^2}{1-t^{12}}=-\underset{t\to 1^{-}}{\lim }\frac{t-1}{t^{12}-1}\\ =& -\underset{t\to 1^{-}}{\lim }\frac{t-1}{(t-1)(t^{11}+t^{10}+\dots +1)}=-\frac{1}{12}\\ [注]& a^n-b^n=(a-b)(a^{n-1}+a^{n-2}b+\dots +a{b}^{n-2}+b^{n-1})\\ 8.& \underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }(x+\sqrt{1+x^2}{)}^{\frac{1}{x}}\\ =& e^{{\lim }_{x\to +\infty }\frac{1}{x}\ln (x+\sqrt{1+x^2})}=e^{{\lim }_{x\to +\infty }\frac{1}{x+\sqrt{1+x^2}}(1+\frac{1}{2}(1+x^2{)}^{-\frac{1}{2}}\cdot 2x)}\\ =& e^{{\lim }_{x\to +\infty }\frac{1}{\sqrt{1+x^2}}}=e^0=1\\ 9.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{(1+x^2)(1-\cos 2x)-2x^2}{x^4}(拆)\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{1-\cos 2x-2x^2}{x^4}+\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{x^2(1-\cos 2x)}{x^4}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{1-(1-\frac{1}{2}(2x{)}^2+\frac{1}{24}(2x{)}^4+\circ (x^4))-2x^2}{x^4}+2\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{-\frac{16}{24}{x}^4}{x^4}+2=\frac{4}{3}\\ 10.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\sqrt{1-x^2}{\sin }^{2}x-{\tan }^{2}x}{x^2[\ln (1+x){]}^2}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\sqrt{1-x^2}{\sin }^{2}x-{\sin }^{2}x+{\sin }^{2}x-{\tan }^{2}x}{x^4}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{{\sin }^x(\sqrt{1-x^2}-1)}{x^4}+\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{{\sin }^{2}x-{\tan }^{2}x}{x^4}\\ =& -\frac{1}{2}+\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{(\sin x+\tan x)(\sin x+\tan )}{x^4}\\ =& -\frac{1}{2}+\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{(\sin x+\tan x)(-\frac{1}{2}{x}^3)}{x^4}\\ =& -\frac{1}{2}+(-\frac{1}{2})(1+1)=-\frac{3}{2}\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{rl}11.& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }{x}^2(a^{\frac{1}{x}}+a^{-\frac{1}{x}}-2),其中常数a>0\\ & 令\frac{1}{x}=t\\ I& =\underset{t\to 0}{\lim }\frac{1}{t^2}(a^t+a^{-t}-2)\\ & =\underset{t\to 0}{\lim }\frac{a^t\ln a+a^{-t}\cdot \ln a^{-1}}{2t}\\ & ={\ln }^{2}a\\ 12.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }(\frac{\cos x}{\cos 2x}{)}^{\frac{1}{x^2}}\\ I& =e^A,其中A=\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{1}{x^2}(\frac{\cos x}{\cos 2x}-1)\\ & =\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\cos x-\cos 2x}{x^2\cos 2x}\\ & =\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\cos x-\cos 2x}{x^2}\\ & =\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\cos x-1+1-\cos 2x}{x^2}\\ & =\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\cos x-1}{x^2}+\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{1-\cos 2x}{x^2}\\ & =-\frac{1}{2}+\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\frac{1}{2}(2x{)}^2}{x^2}\\ & =\frac{3}{2}故I=e^{\frac{3}{2}}\\ 13.& \underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }[(x^3+\frac{x}{2}-\tan \frac{1}{x})e^{\frac{1}{x}}-\sqrt{1+x^6}]\\ =& \underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }[(x^3+\frac{x}{2})e^{\frac{1}{x}}-\sqrt{1+x^6}]-\underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }\tan \frac{1}{x}\cdot e^{\frac{1}{x}}\\ \underrightarrow{t=\frac{1}{x}}& \underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }[(\frac{1}{t^3}+\frac{1}{2t})e^t-\sqrt{1+\frac{1}{t^6}}]-0\\ =& \underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{(2+t^2)e^t-2\sqrt{1+t^6}+2-2}{2t^3}\\ =& \underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{(2+t^2)e^t-2}{2t^3}-2\underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{\sqrt{1+t^6}-1}{2t^3}\\ =& \underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{(2+t^2)(1+t+\frac{1}{2}{t}^2+\frac{1}{6}{t}^3+\circ (t^3))-2}{2t^3}-0\\ =& \underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{2t+2t^2+\frac{4}{3}{t}^3}{2t^3}=\infty \\ 14.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }[\frac{a}{x}-(\frac{1}{x^2}-a^2)\ln (1+ax)].其中a̸=0\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }[\frac{a}{x}-\frac{1}{x^2}\ln (1+ax)]+a^2\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\ln (1+ax)\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{ax-\ln (1+ax)}{x^2}+0\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\frac{1}{2}(ax{)}^2}{x^2}=\frac{1}{2}{a}^2\\ 15.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{(1+x{)}^{\frac{1}{x}}-(1+2x{)}^{\frac{1}{2x}}}{\sin x}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{e^{\ln (1+x)/x}-e^{\ln (1+2x)/2x}}{x}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{e^{\ln (1+2x)/2x}(e^{\ln (1+x)/x-\ln (1+2x)/2x}-1)}{x}\\ =& e\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\ln (1+x)/x-\ln (1+2x)/2x}{x}\\ =& e\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{2\ln (1+x)-\ln (1+2x)}{2x^2}\\ =& e\cdot \frac{2(x-\frac{1}{2}{x}^2)+\circ (x^2)-(2x-\frac{1}{2}(2x{)}^2)-\circ (x^2)}{2x^2}\\ =& e\cdot \frac{1}{2}=\frac{e}{2}\end{array}$$

及时提出极限=c≠0的因式

$$\begin{array}{rl}1.& \underset{x\to 3^{+}}{\lim }\frac{\cos x\ln (x-3)}{\ln (e^x-e^3)}\\ =& \cos 3\underset{x\to 3^{+}}{\lim }\frac{\ln (x-3)}{\ln (e^x-e^3)}\\ =& \cos 3\underset{x\to 3^{+}}{\lim }\frac{1}{x-3}\cdot \frac{e^x-e^3}{e^x}\\ =& \frac{\cos 3}{e^3}\underset{x\to 3^{+}}{\lim }\frac{e^x-e^3}{x-3}\\ =& \frac{\cos 3}{e^3}\underset{x\to 3^{+}}{\lim }\frac{e^x}{1}=\cos 3\end{array}$$

洛必达法则

$$\begin{array}{rl}1.& \underset{x\to \cdot }{\lim }\frac{f(x)}{g(x)}=\underset{x\to \cdot }{\lim }\frac{f^{\prime }(x)}{g^{\prime }(x)}\\ 2.& \underset{x\to a}{\lim }\frac{{\int }_a^{x}f(t)dt}{{\int }_a^{x}g(t)dt}=\underset{x\to a}{\lim }\frac{f(x)}{g(x)}\\ 3.& \underset{x\to a}{\lim }\frac{{\int }_a^{\phi }(x)f(t)dt}{{\int }_a^{\varphi }(x)g(t)dt}=\underset{x\to a}{\lim }\frac{f[\phi (x)]\cdot {\phi }^{\prime }(x)}{g[\varphi (x)]\cdot {\varphi }^{\prime }(x)}\\ [注]& 1.\frac{0}{0}型2.可导3.结果为0,c̸=0,\infty \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{rl}1.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }{\int }_0^x\frac{\sin 2t}{\sqrt{4+t^2}{\int }_0^x(\sqrt{t+1}-1)dt}dt\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{{\int }_0^x\frac{\sin 2t}{\sqrt{4+t^2}}dt}{{\int }_0^x(\sqrt{t+1}-1)dt}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\frac{\sin 2x}{\sqrt{4+x^2}}}{\sqrt{x+1}-1}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{2x}{2(\frac{1}{2}x)}=2\\ 2.& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }\frac{{\int }_1^x[t^2(e^{\frac{1}{t}}-1)-t]dt}{x^2\ln (1+\frac{1}{x})}\\ =& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }=\frac{x^2(e^{\frac{1}{x}}-1)-x}{1}\underrightarrow{x=\frac{1}{t}}\underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }(\frac{e^t-1}{t^2}-\frac{1}{t})\\ =& \underset{t\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{e^t-1-t}{t^2}=\frac{1}{2}\end{array}$$

泰勒公式

公式

$$\begin{array}{rl}& 泰勒发现，任何可导函数都可以写成\sum a_n{x}^n,这样，任何可导函数都具有了统一美，也可以统一计算\\ & 当x\to 0时，就如以下常见的函数泰勒展开式，最后的\circ (x^3)被称作佩亚诺余项\\ & \sin x=x-\frac{1}{6}{x}^3+\frac{1}{5!}{x}^5-\frac{x^7}{7!}+\cdots +(-1{)}^n\frac{x^{2n+1}}{(2n+1)!}+\cdots =\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }(-1{)}^n\cdot \frac{x^{2n+1}}{(2n+1)!}\\ & e^x=1+x+\frac{x^2}{2}+\frac{x^3}{6}+\cdots +\frac{x^n}{n!}+\cdots =\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\frac{x^n}{n!}\\ & \cos x=1-\frac{1}{2}{x}^2+\frac{1}{24}{x}^4-\frac{x^6}{6!}+\cdots +(-1{)}^n\frac{x^{2n}}{(2n)!}+\cdots =\sum _{n=0}^{\infty }(-1{)}^n\cdot \frac{x^{2n}}{(2n)!}\\ & \ln (1+x)=x-\frac{1}{2}{x}^2+\frac{1}{3}{x}^3-\cdots +(-1{)}^{n-1}\frac{x^n}{n}+\cdots =\sum _{n=1}^{\infty }(-1{)}^{n-1}\cdot \frac{x^n}{n}\\ & (1+x{)}^{\alpha }=1+\alpha x+\frac{\alpha (\alpha -1)}{2}{x}^2+\circ (x^2)\tan x=x+\frac{1}{3}{x}^3+\circ (x^3)\\ & \arcsin x=x+\frac{1}{6}{x}^3+\frac{1}{120}{x}^5+\circ (x^5)\arctan x=x-\frac{1}{3}{x}^3+\circ (x^3)\end{array}$$

展开原则

$$\begin{array}{rl}& 1.\frac{A}{B}型，上下同阶\\ & 2.A-B型，幂次最低，即将A,B分别展开至系数不相等的x的最低次幂为止\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{rl}1.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\arctan x-x}{x^3}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{x-\frac{1}{3}{x}^3-x}{x^3}=-\frac{1}{3}\\ 2.& x\to 0时，\cos x-e^{-\frac{x^2}{2}}与a{x}^b为等价无穷小，求a,b\\ & \cos x=1-\frac{1}{2}{x}^2+\frac{1}{24}{x}^4+\circ (x^4)e^{-\frac{x^2}{2}}=1-\frac{x^2}{2}+\frac{x^4}{8}+\circ (x^4)\\ & I=-\frac{1}{12}{x}^4+\circ (x^4)\therefore a=-\frac{1}{12},b=4\\ 3.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{1+\frac{1}{2}{x}^2-\sqrt{1+x^2}}{(\cos x-e^{\frac{x^2}{2}})\sin \frac{x^2}{2}}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\frac{1}{8}{x}^4}{-\frac{x^4}{2}}=-\frac{1}{4}\\ 4.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{{\sum }_{n=1}^{\infty }\frac{2^n}{n!}{x}^{2n}}{\arctan x^2}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{2x^2+\frac{2^2}{2!}{x}^4+\dots }{x^2}=2\\ 5.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{e^x+\ln (1-x)-1}{x-\arctan x}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{e^x+\ln (1-x)-1}{\frac{1}{3}{x}^3}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{1+\frac{1}{2}{x}^2+x+\frac{1}{6}{x}^3+\circ (x^3)-x-\frac{1}{2}{x}^2-\frac{1}{3}{x}^3+\circ (x^3)-1}{\frac{1}{3}{x}^3}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{-\frac{1}{6}{x}^3}{\frac{1}{3}{x}^3}=-\frac{1}{2}\end{array}$$

中值定理

$$\begin{array}{rl}& 拉格朗日中值定理：设f(x)\{\begin{array}{l}[a,b]连续\\ (a,b)可导\end{array}⟹f(b)-f(a)=f^{\prime }(\xi )(b-a),\exists \xi \in (a,b)\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{rl}1.& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{(1+x{)}^{\frac{2}{x}}-e^2[1-\ln (1+x)]}{x}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{(1+x{)}^{\frac{2}{x}}-e^2}{x}+e^2\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\ln (1+x)}{x}\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{e^{2\ln (1+x)/x}-e^2}{x}+e^2\\ =& \underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{e^{\xi }(\frac{2\ln (1+x)}{x}-2)}{x}+e^2\\ =& 2e^2\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\frac{\ln (1+x)}{x}-1}{x}+e^2\\ =& 2e^2\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{\ln (1+x)-x}{x^2}+e^2\\ =& 2e^2\underset{x\to 0}{\lim }\frac{-\frac{1}{2}{x}^2}{x^2}+e^2=0\\ 2.& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }(\sqrt[6]{x^6+x^5}-\sqrt[6]{x^6-x^5})\\ =& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }{f}^{\prime }(\xi )(2x^5)\\ =& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }\frac{1}{6}{\xi }^{-\frac{5}{6}}(2x^5)\\ =& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }\frac{1}{6}\cdot x^{6(-\frac{5}{6})}(2x^5)\\ =& \underset{x\to \infty }{\lim }\frac{1}{6}{x}^{-5}(2x^5)=\frac{1}{3}\end{array}$$

无穷小比阶

定义

$$\begin{array}{rl}& \underset{x\to \cdot }{\lim }\frac{f(x)}{g(x)}\underrightarrow{\frac{0}{0}}\{\begin{array}{l}c̸=0,同阶无穷小(c=1,等价无穷小)\\ 0,高阶无穷小\\ \infty ,低阶无穷小\end{array}\\ & 如\{\begin{array}{l}{\lim }_{x\to 0}\frac{\sin x}{x}=1\\ {\lim }_{x\to 0}\frac{x^2}{x}=0\\ {\lim }_{x\to 0}\frac{x}{x^2}=\infty \end{array}\end{array}$$

反问题、求未知参数

$$\begin{array}{rl}1.& 当x\to 0^{+}时，下列（）与x^1同阶\\ & A.\sqrt{1+x}-1B.\ln (1+x)-x\\ & C.\cos (\sin x)-1D.x^x-1\\ [分析]& A.(1+x{)}^{\frac{1}{2}}-1\sim \frac{1}{2}{x}^1\\ & B.\ln (1+x)-x\sim -\frac{1}{2}{x}^2\\ & C.\cos (\sin x)-1\sim -\frac{1}{2}(\sin x{)}^2\\ & D.x^x-1=e^{x\ln x}-1\sim x\ln x是比x低阶的无穷小\\ 2.& 当x\to 0^{+}时，比较\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma 的阶\\ & \alpha ={\int }_0^x\cos t^{2}dt\beta ={\int }_0^{x^2}\tan \sqrt{t}dt\gamma ={\int }_0^{\sqrt{x}}\sin t^{3}dt\\ & \underset{x\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{\gamma }{\alpha }=\underset{x\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{\sin x^{\frac{3}{2}}\cdot \frac{1}{2\sqrt{x}}}{\cos x^2}\\ & =\frac{1}{2}\underset{x\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{x^{\frac{3}{2}}}{x^{\frac{1}{2}}}=0\\ & ⟹\gamma =\circ (\alpha )\\ & \underset{x\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{\beta }{\gamma }=\underset{x\to 0^{+}}{\lim }\frac{\tan x-2x}{\sin x^{\frac{3}{2}}\cdot \frac{1}{2\sqrt{x}}}=0\\ & ⟹\beta =\circ (\gamma )\\ & ⟹由高阶至低阶：\beta \to \gamma \to \alpha \end{array}$$

存在性

具体型，但洛必达失效

$$\begin{array}{rl}& 用夹逼准则\\ [例]& 记S(x)={\int }_0^x\mid \sin t\mid dt,\\ & (1)证明当n\pi \le x<(n+1)\pi 时，2n\le S(x)<2(n+1)\\ & (2)求\underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }\frac{{\int }_0^x\mid \sin t\mid dt}{x}\\ & (1)S(n\pi )={\int }_0^{n\pi }\mid \sin t\mid dt=2n\\ & S((n+1)\pi )={\int }_0^{(n+1)\pi }\mid \sin t\mid dt=2(n+1)\\ & 又S^{\prime }(x)=\mid \sin x\mid \ge 0⟹S(x)单调递增\\ & 故当n\pi \le x<(n+1)\pi 时，2n=S(n\pi )\le S(x)<S((n+1)\pi )=2(n+1)\\ & (2)\frac{2n}{(n+1)\pi }\le \frac{{\int }_0^x\mid \sin t\mid dt}{x}<\frac{2(n+1)}{n\pi }\\ & x\to +\infty ⟹n\to \infty ⟹由夹逼准则得：\frac{2}{\pi }\\ [注]& 1.\underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }\frac{{\int }_0^x\mid \sin t\mid dt}{x}\\ & 2.\underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }\frac{{\int }_0^x\mid \cos t\mid dt}{x}\\ & 3.\underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }\frac{{\int }_0^x(t-[t])dt}{x}\end{array}$$

抽象型——单调有界准则

$$\begin{array}{rl}& 若f(x)单调递增（递减），且有上（下）界⟹\underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }f(x)=\exists \\ [例]& 设x\ge 0,f(x)满足f^{\prime }(x)=\frac{1}{x^2+f^2(x)},f(0)=1,证明\\ & (1)f^{\prime }(x)\le \frac{1}{1+x^2},x\ge 0\\ & (2)\underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }f(x)存在且其值小与1+\frac{\pi }{2}\\ & (1)f^{\prime }(x)>0⟹f(x)单调递增⟹f(x)\ge f(0)=1\\ & 故f^{\prime }(x)=\frac{1}{x^2+f^2(x)}\le \frac{1}{x^2+1}\\ & (2)f(x)=f(a)+{\int }_a^x{f}^{\prime }(x)dt,故f(x)=f(0)+{\int }_1^x\frac{1}{t^2+f^2(t)}dt\le 1+{\int }_0^x\frac{1}{t^2+1}dt\\ & =1+\arctan x<1+\frac{\pi }{2},故f(x)有上界\\ & 由单调有界准则,得\underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }f(x)存在且\underset{x\to +\infty }{\lim }f(x)=1+{\int }_0^{+\infty }\frac{1}{t^2+f^2(t)}dt<1+{\int }_0^{+\infty }\frac{1}{t^2+1}dt=1+\frac{\pi }{2}\end{array}$$

应用–连续与间断

$$\begin{array}{rl}1.& 由于“一切初等函数在其定义区域内必连续”，故只研究两类特殊的点\{\begin{array}{l}无定义点(间断)\\ 分段函数的分段点\end{array}\\ 2.& 连续\\ (1)& 内点处：\underset{x\to x_0^{+}}{\lim }f(x)=\underset{x\to x_0^{-}}{\lim }f(x)=f(x)⟹f(x)在x_0处连续\\ (2)& 端点处：\{\begin{array}{l}{\lim }_{x\to a^{+}}f(x)=f(a)(左端点右连续)\\ {\lim }_{x\to b^{-}}f(x)=f(b)(右端点左连续)\\ f(x)在(a,b)内连续\end{array}称f(x)在[a,b]上连续\\ 3.& 间断:(前提:f(x)在x=x_0左右两侧均有定义)\\ (1)& 若\underset{x\to x_0^{+}}{\lim }f(x),\underset{x\to x_0^{-}}{\lim }f(x)均存在但\underset{x\to x_0^{+}}{\lim }f(x)̸=\underset{x\to x_0^{-}}{\lim }f(x)⟹x_0为跳跃间断点\\ (2)& \underset{x\to x_0^{+}}{\lim }f(x),\underset{x\to x_0^{-}}{\lim }f(x)均存在且\underset{x\to x_0^{+}}{\lim }f(x)=\underset{x\to x_0^{-}}{\lim }f(x)，但̸=f(x)⟹x_0为可去间断点\\ & 以上统称第一类间断点\\ (3)& \underset{x\to x_0^{+}}{\lim }f(x),\underset{x\to x_0^{-}}{\lim }f(x)至少一个不存在，且不存在=\infty ⟹x_0为无穷间断点\\ (4)& \underset{x\to x_0^{+}}{\lim }f(x),\underset{x\to x_0^{-}}{\lim }f(x)至少一个不存在且不存在为振荡不存在⟹x_0为振荡间断点\\ & (3)(4)属于第二类间断点\end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{rl}[例]& 当x\in (-\frac{1}{2},1]时，确定f(x)=\frac{\tan \pi x}{\mid x\mid (x^2-1)}的间断点并判断其类型\\ & 1.\{\begin{array}{l}{\lim }_{x\to 0^{+}}\frac{\tan \pi x}{x(x^{-}1)}=-\pi \\ {\lim }_{x\to 0^{-}}\frac{\tan \pi x}{-x(x^{-}1)}=\pi \end{array}⟹x=0为跳跃间断点\\ & 2.\underset{x\to 1}{\lim }\frac{\tan \pi x}{x(x+1)(x-1)}=\frac{1}{2}\underset{x\to 1}{\lim }\frac{\tan \pi x}{x-1}=\frac{\pi }{2}⟹x=1为可去间断点\\ & 3.\underset{x\to \frac{1}{2}}{\lim }\frac{\tan \pi x}{x(x^2-1)}=\infty ⟹x=\frac{1}{2}为无穷间断点\end{array}$$