NP算法,超全解释

本文详细介绍了NP算法的基本概念,包括决策问题、多项式时间、非确定性算法和NP问题。NP算法关注在多项式时间内验证解的正确性,而非求解。文章还讨论了P算法、NP完全问题以及常用的求解策略,如穷举搜索、近似算法、随机化算法和启发式算法,这些策略在无法找到多项式时间解的情况下被广泛应用。

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NP算法,超全解释

NP算法是一类重要的计算问题,属于复杂度理论中的一个重要分支。它与P算法、NP完全问题和NP难问题等概念密切相关,是计算机科学中的热门话题之一。本文将详细介绍NP算法的基本概念、判定方法、典型问题和求解策略,以及与P算法和NP完全问题的关系。

NP算法的基本概念

在介绍NP算法之前,我们需要先了解一些基本概念。

决策问题

决策问题(decision problem)是指只有“是”或“否”两种答案的问题,例如“一个图是否为二分图”,“一个数是否为质数”等。

多项式时间算法

多项式时间算法(polynomial-time algorithm)是指能够在多项式时间内解决问题的算法,即时间复杂度为O(n^k)的算法,其中n为输入规模,k为常数。

确定性算法

确定性算法(deterministic algorithm)是指给定一个问题,总是能够得到正确答案的算法,例如插入排序和二分查找等。

非确定性算法

非确定性算法(nondeterministic algorithm)是指对于给定的问题,不能保证总是得到正确答案的算法,但是可以在多项式时间内检验一个给定答案是否正确。非确定性算法通常被描述为“猜测-验证”(guess-and-verify)算法。

NP问题

NP问题(Nondeterministic Polynomial-time problem)是指能够在多项式时间内验证一个解是否正确的问题。换句话说,如果我们有一个解,并且想要验证它是否正确,那么可以在多项式时间内检验出来。NP问题不一定要求能够在多项式时间内求解,只要能够在多项式时间内验证一个解是否正确即可。

NP算法的判定方法

根据上述定义,我们可以得知NP问题的特点是能够在多项式时间内验证一个解是否正确,但是不能保证在多项式时间内求解。而NP算法则是一类算法,能够在多项式时间内验证一个给定的解是否正确。具体来说,NP算法包括以下两种形式:

  1. 确定性算法的验证:当问题的解已经给出时,可以使用确定性算法在多项式时间内验证其正确性。例如,在判断一个图是否为二分图时,如果已知图的划分,则可以使用BFS或DFS算法在多项式时间内进行验证。
  2. 非确定性算法的求解:当问题的解还没有给出时,可以使用非确定性算法进行求解,在多项式时间内猜测一个解,并在多项式时间内验证其正确性。例如,在求解TSP问题时,可以猜测一条哈密尔顿回路,并在多项式时间内验证其是否为最优解。

由于NP算法的验证和求解都可以在多项式时间内完成,因此,任何一个NP问题的解都可以在多项式时间内验证。但是,不能保证所有NP问题的解都可以在多项式时间内找到或求解,这就涉及到了P算法和NP完全问题的概念。

P算法和NP完全问题

P算法是指能够在多项式时间复杂度内求解的问题,即可以使用多项式时间的确定性算法来解决的问题。例如,线性求解方程、排序和图的三染色问题等均为P问题。

相对应的是NP完全问题(NP-complete problem),它是指既是一个NP问题,又是一个NP难问题的问题。NP难问题是指所有NP问题中最难的一类问题,它们不能被有效的非确定性算法求解,且目前也没有已知的快速算法。如果一个问题既是NP问题又是NP难问题,那么就称为NP完全问题。

NP完全问题是计算机科学中的一个经典问题,因为许多重要的问题都被证明是NP完全问题,例如旅行商问题(TSP)、布尔可满足性问题(SAT)和图的哈密顿回路问题等。这些问题虽然不能够在多项式时间内求解,但是可以使用NP算法验证一个给定的解是否正确。

NP算法的求解策略

虽然NP问题目前还没有找到一个高效的、多项式时间的算法来求解它们,但是对于NP问题的求解仍然有一些典型的思路和策略。

穷举搜索

穷举搜索(Brute-force search)是一种简单粗暴的算法,它枚举所有可能的解,并从中选择最优解。穷举搜索通常用于小规模问题或作为其他算法的辅助算法。

例如,在解决TSP问题时,可以使用穷举搜索的方式,枚举所有可能的哈密尔顿回路,并选择其中最短的一条作为最优解。这种方法虽然简单易懂,但是在实际应用中由于搜索空间太大,因此很难得到一个高效的解。

近似算法

近似算法(Approximation algorithm)是一种以牺牲精度为代价,求解NP问题的算法。近似算法通常能够在多项式时间内找到一个比较接近最优解的近似解,并且与最优解之间的相对差距可以在一定范围内保持。

例如,在解决TSP问题时,可以使用最小生成树算法(MST)来近似求解。首先,选择一个起点,并以该点为根节点构造一棵最小生成树。然后按照遍历最小生成树的深度优先顺序,依次访问每个叶节点。当遍历到某个叶节点时,将其父节点作为路径的下一个节点,并递归回溯到父节点继续访问其它子节点。

虽然近似算法不能保证得到最优解,但是它们总是能在多项式时间内找到一个比较接近最优解的近似解,在实际应用中有着广泛的应用和重要的意义。

随机化算法

随机化算法(Randomized algorithm)是指在算法设计和实现中引入随机性,以减少问题的复杂度或增加算法的效率。其中,蒙特卡罗算法(Monte Carlo algorithm)和拉斯维加斯算法(Las Vegas algorithm)是两种常见的随机化算法。

蒙特卡罗算法是指对于一个问题,在多项式时间内产生一个随机解,并在多项式时间内检验其是否正确。蒙特卡罗算法通常用于求解NP问题的估计值。

拉斯维加斯算法则是指多次重复运行一个算法,每次都产生一个随机解,并在多项式时间内检验其是否正确,直到找到一个正确的解为止。拉斯维加斯算法通常用于求解NP问题的确切值或最优解。

例如,在解决布尔可满足性问题(SAT)时,可以使用随机化算法来求解。首先,随机生成一个布尔变量的赋值,并计算该赋值对应的逻辑表达式的取值。如果该表达式为真,则得到了一个解;否则可以调整变量的赋值并重新计算,直至找到一个可行解为止。

尽管随机化算法不能够保证每次都能得到正确的解,但是它们通常具有较高的执行效率和较好的求解质量,因此得到了广泛的应用。

启发式算法

启发式算法(Heuristic algorithm)是指基于先验知识或经验的算法,在不保证最优解的情况下,寻找一个能够在实践中应用的良好解。启发式算法通常具有快速、简单和易于实现等优点,但是其求解质量通常难以评估和保证。

例如,在解决旅行商问题(TSP)时,可以使用遗传算法或模拟退火算法来求解。遗传算法和模拟退火算法都是基于群体智能和自适应性的算法,它们通过不断调整和优化方案,寻找一个接近最优解的高质量解。

尽管启发式算法不能保证得到最优解,但是它们通常具有较好的求解质量和较高的执行效率,因此也得到了广泛的应用。

总结

NP算法是一类重要的计算问题,其特点是能够在多项式时间内验证一个解是否正确。NP算法包括确定性算法的验证和非确定性算法的求解两种形式,可以使用穷举搜索、近似算法、随机化算法和启发式算法等策略来进行求解。与之相对应的是P算法和NP完全问题,它们分别指能够在多项式时间内求解的问题和既是NP问题又是NP难问题的问题。虽然NP问题目前还没有找到一个高效的、多项式时间的算法来求解它们,但是对于NP问题的求解仍然有许多值得研究和探索的方向。

这本书在国内已经绝版。目录如下 Introduction Dorit S. Hochbaum 0.1 What can approximation algorithms do for you: an illustrative example 0.2 Fundamentals and concepts 0.3 Objectives and organization of this book 0.4 Acknowledgments I Approximation Algorithms for Scheduling Leslie A. Hall 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Sequencing with Release Dates to Minimize Lateness 1.2.1 Jacksons rule 1.2.2 A simple 3/2-approximation algorithm 1.2.3 A polynomial approximation scheme 1.2.4 Precedence constraints and preprocessing 1.3 Identical parallel machines: beyond list scheduling 1.3.1 P|rj,prec|Lmax:: list scheduling revisited 1.3.2 The LPT rule for P‖Cmax 1.3.3 The LPT rule for P|rj|Cmax 1.3.4 Other results for identical parallel machines 1.4 Unrelated parallel machines 1.4.1 A 2-approximation algorithm based on linear programming 1.4.2 An approximation algorithm for minimizing cost and makespan 1.4.3 A related result from network scheduling 1.5 Shop scheduling 1.5.1 A greedy 2-approximation algorithm for open shops 1.5.2 An algorithm with an absolute error bound 1.5.3 A 2 E -approximation algorithm for fixed job and flow shops 1.5.4 The general job shop: unit-time operations 1.6 Lower bounds on approximation for makespan scheduling 1.6.1 Identical parallel machines and precedence constraints 1.6.2 Unrelated parallel machines 1.6.3 Shop scheduling 1.7 Min-sum Objectives 1.7.1 Sequencing with release dates to minimize sum of completion times 1.7.2 Sequencing with precedence constraints 1.7.3 Unrelated parallel machines 1.8 Final remarks 2 Approximation Algorithms for Bin Packing: A Survey E. G. Coffman, Jr., M. R. Garey, and D. S. Johnson 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Worst-case analysis 2.2.1 Next fit 2.2.2 First fit 2.2.3 Best fit, worst fit, and almost any fit algorithms 2.2.4 Bounded-space online algorithms 2.2.5 Arbitrary online algorithms 2.2.6 Semi-online algorithms 2.2.7 First fit decreasing and best fit decreasing 2.2.8 Other simple offline algorithms 2.2.9 Special-case optimality, approximation schemes, and asymptotically optimal algorithms 2.2.10 Other worst-case questions 2.3 Average-case analysis 2.3.1 Bounded-space online algorithms 2.3.2 Arbitrary online algorithms 2.3.3 Offiine algorithms 2.3.4 Other average-case questions 2.4 Conclusion Approximating Covering and Packing Problems: Set Cover, Vertex Cover, Independent Set, and Related Problems Dorit S. Hachbaum 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Definitions, formulations and applications 3.1.2 Lower bounds on approximations 3.1.3 Overview of chapter 3.2 The greedy algorithm for the set cover problem 3.3 The LP-algorithm for set cover 3.4 The feasible dual approach 3.5 Using other relaxations to derive dual feasible solutions 3.6 Approximating the multicoverproblem 3.7 The optimal dual approach for the vertex cover and independent set problems: preprocessing 3.7.1 The complexity of the LP-relaxation of vertex cover and independent set 3.7.2 Easily colorable graphs 3.7.3 A greedy algorithm for independent set in unweighted graphs 3.7.4 A local-ratio theorem and subgraph removal 3.7.5 Additional algorithms without preprocessing 3.7.6 Summary of approximations for vertex cover and independent set 3.8 Integer programming with two variables per inequality 3.8.1 The half integrality and the linear programming relaxation 3.8.2 Computing all approximate solution 3.8.3 The equivalence of IP2 to 2-SAT and 2-SAT to vertex cover 3.8.4 Properties of binary integer programs 3.8.5 Dual feasible solutions for IP2 3.9 The maximum coverage problem and the greedy 3.9.1 Tile greedy approach 3.9.2 Applications of the maxinmum coverage problem 4 The Primal-Dual Methud for Approximation Algorithms and Its Applicatiun to Network Design Problems Michel X. Goemans and David P. Williamson 4.1 Introduction 4.2 The classical primal-dual method 4.3 Thc primal-dual method Im approximation algorithms 4.4 A model of network design problems 4.4.1 0-I functions 4.5 Downwards monotone functions 4.5.1 The edge-covering problem 4.5.2 Lower capacitated partitioning problems 4.5.3 Location-design and location-routing problems 4.5.4 Proof of Theorems 4.5 and 4.6 4.6 0-1 proper functions 4.6.1 The generalized Sterner tree problem 4.6.2 The T-join problem 4.6.3 The minimum-weight perfect matching problem 4.6.4 Point-to-point connection problems 4.6.5 Exact partitioning problems 4.7 General proper functions 4.8 Extensions 4.8.1 Mininmm multicut in trees 4.8.2 The prize-collecting problems 4.8.3 Vertex connectivity problems 4.9 Conclusions 5 Cut Problems and Their Application to Divide-and-Conquer David B. Shmoys 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Minimum multicuts and maximum multicommodity flow 5.2.1 Multicuts, maximum multicommodity flow, and a weak duality theorem 5.2.2 Fractional multicuts, pipe systems, and a strong duality theorem 5.2.3 Solving the linear programs 5.2.4 Finding a good multicut 5.3 Sparsest cuts and maximum concurrent flow 5.3.1 The sparsest cut problem 5.3.2 Reducing the sparsest cut problem to the minimum multicut problem 5.3.3 Embeddings and the sparsest cut problem 5.3.4 Finding a good embedding 5.3.5 The maximum concurrent flow problem 5.4 Minimum feedback arc sets and related problems 5.4.1 An LP-based approximation algorithm 5.4.2 Analyzing the algorithm Feedback 5.4.3 Finding a good partition 5.5 Finding balanced cuts and other applications 5.5.1 Finding balanced cuts 5.5.2 Applications of balanced cut theorems 5.6 Conclusions Approximation Algorithms for Finding Highly Connected Suhgraphs Samir KhulJer 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Outline of chapter and techniques 6.2 Edge-connectivity problems 6.2.1 Weighted edge-connectivity 6.2.2 Unweighted edge-connectivity 6.3 Vertex-connectivity problems 6.3.1 Weighted vertex-connectivity 6.3.2 Unweighted vertex-connectivity 6.4 Strong-connectivity problems 6.4.1 Polynomial time approximation algorithms 6.4.2 Nearly linear-time implementation 6.5 Connectivity augmentation 6.5.1 increasing edge connectivity from I to 2 6.5.2 Increasing vertex connectivity from I to 2 6.5.3 Increasing edge-connectivity to 3. Algorithms for Finding Low Degree Structures Balaji Raghavachari 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Toughness and degree 7.3 Matchings and MDST 7.4 MDST within one of optimal 7.4.1 Witness sets 7.4.2 The △* 1 algorithm 7.4.3 Performance analysis 7.5 Local search techniques 7.5.1 MDST problem 7.5.2 Constrained forest problems 7.5.3 Two-connected subgraphs 7.6 Problems with edge weights - points in Euclidean spaces 7.7 Open problems 8 Approximation Algorithms for Geometric Problems Marshall Bern and David Eppstein 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Overview of topics 8.1.2 Special nature of geometric problems 8.2 Traveling salesman problem 8.2.1 Christofides algorithm 8.2.2 Heuristics 8.2.3 TSP with neighborhoods 8.3 Steiner tree problem 8.3.1 Steiner ratios 8.3.2 Better approximations 8.4 Minimum weight triangulation 8.4.1 Triangulation without Steiner points 8.4.2 Steiner triangulation 8.5 Clustering 8.5.1 Minmax k-clustering 8.5.2 k-minimum spanning tree 8.6 Separation problems 8.6.1 Polygon separation 8.6.2 Polyhedron separation 8.6.3 Point set separation 8.7 Odds and ends 8.7.1 Covering orthogonal polygons by rectangles 8.7.2 Packing squares with fixed comers 8.7.3 Largest congruent subsets 8.7.4 Polygon bisection 8.7.5 Graph embedding 8.7.6 Low-degree spanning trees 8.7.7 Shortest paths in space 8.7.8 Longest subgraph problems 8.8 Conclusions 9 Various Notions of Approximations: Good, Better, Best, and More Dorit S. Hochbaum 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Overview of chapter 9.2 Good: fixed constant approximations 9.2.1 The weighted undirected vertex feedback set problem 9.2.2 The shortest superstring problem 9.2.3 How maximization versus minimization affects approximations 9.3 Better: approximation schemes 9.3.1 A fully polynomial approximation scheme for the knapsack problem 9.3.2 The minimum makespan and the technique of dual approximations 9.3.3 Geometric packing and covering--the shifting technique 9.4 Best: unless NP = P 9.4.1 The k-center problem 9.4.2 A powerful approximation technique for bottleneck problems 9.4.3 Best possible parallel approximation algorithms 9.5 Better than best 9.5.1 A FPAS for bin packing 9.5.2 A 9/8-approximation algorithm for ~dge coloring of multigraphs and beyond 9.6 Wonderful: within one unit of optimum 10 Hardness of Approximations San jeer Arora and Carsten Lund 10.1 Introduction 10.2 How to prove inapproximability results 10.2.1 The canonical problems 10.2.2 Inapproximability results for the canonical problems 10.2.3 Gap preserving reductions 10.3 Inapproximability results for problems in class I 10.3.1 Max-SNP 10.4 Inapproximability results for problems in class II 10.4.1 SETCOVER 10.5 Inapproximability results lor problems in class 111 10.5.1 LABELCOVER maximization version ,. 10.5.2 LABELCOVER mtn version 10.5.3 Nearest lattice vector problem 10.6 Inapproximability results for problems in class IV 10.6.1 CLIQUE 10.6.2 COLORING 10.7 Inapproximability results at a glance 10.7.1 How to prove other hardness results: a case study 10.8 prohabilistically checkable proofs and inapproximability 10.8.1 The PCP theorem 10.8.2 Connection to inapproximability of MAX-3SAT 10.8.3 Where the gap comes from 10.9 Open problems 10.10 Chapter notes 11 Randomized Approximation Algorithms in Combinatorial Optimization Rajeev Motwani, Joseph Seffi Naor, and Prabhakar Raghavan 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Rounding linear programs 11.2.1 The integer multicommodity flow problem 11.2.2 Covering and packing problems 11.2.3 The maximum satisfiability problem 11.2.4 Related work 11.3 Semidefinite programming 11.3.1 The maximum cut problem 11.3.2 The graph coloring problem 11.4 Concluding remarks 11.4.1 Derandomizafion and parallelization 11.4.2 Computational experience 11.4.3 Open problems 12 The Markov Chain Monte Carlo Method: An Approach to Approximate Counting and Integration Mark Jerrum and Alistair Sinclair 12.1 Introduction 12.2 An illustrative example 12.3 Two techniques for bounding the mixing time 12.3.1 Canonical paths 12.3.2 Conductance 12.4 A more complex example: monomer-dimer systems 12.5 More applications 12.5.1 The permanent 12.5.2 Volume of convex bodies 12.5.3 Statistical physics 12.5.4 Matroid bases: an open problem 12.6 The Metropolis algorithm and simulated annealing Appendix 13 Online Computation Sandy Irani and Anna R. Karlin 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Three examples of competitive analysis 13.2.1 Paging 13.2.2 The k-server problem 13.2.3 Metrical task systems 13.3 Theoretical underpinnings: deterministic algorithms 13.3.1 Lower bounds 13.3.2 Design principles 13.3.3 Bounding competitiveness 13.4 Theoretical underpinnings: randomized algorithms 13.4.1 Example: paging 13.4.2 Lower bounds 13.4.3 The relationships between the adversaries 13.5 The k-server problem revisited 13.5.1 History. 13.5.2 Notation and properties of work functions. 13.5.3 The work function algorithm WFA 13.5.4 Proof of 2k - 1 -competitiveness 13.5.5 The duality lemma 13.5.6 The potential function 13.5.7 Quasi-convexity and the duality lemma 13.6 Online load balancing and virtual circuit routing 13.6.1 Load balancing on unrelated machines 13.6.2 Online virtual circuit routing 13.6.3 Recent results 13.7 Variants of competitive analysis 13.8 Conclusions and directions for future research Glossary of Problems Index
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