官方文档链接：CGAL 5.5 - Quadtrees, Octrees, and Orthtrees: User Manual
1 概述
1.1 定义
八叉树（Octrees）是一种用于描述三维空间的树状数据结构。八叉树的每个节点表示一个正方体的体积元素，每个节点有八个子节点，将八个子节点所表示的体积元素加在一起就等于父节点的体积。八叉树是四叉树在三维空间上的扩展，二维上我们有四个象限，而三维上，我们有8个卦限。八叉树主要用于空间划分和最近邻搜索。
引用链接：几何体数据结构学习（2）八叉树 - 知乎 (zhihu.com)
八叉树（Octrees）属于二维四叉树（Quadtrees）在三维空间上的拓展，同时这种数据统称为正交树（orthtrees）。当维度为4或拓展到更高维的时候，我们称其为"hyperoctree" （超八叉树）。
2 构建
一个正交树通过使用点集进行构建。正交树构造函数直接使用提供的点进行排列，返回一个具有单个root的树。
在构建过程中，会调用refine()方法进一步细分空间。此方法使用split predicate（拆分谓词），该谓词的输入为节点，若该节点应该拆分，则返回true，否则返回false。因此在构建过程中允许用户选择orthtree细化的标准。其中CGAL提供有预定义谓词如Maximum_depth 和 Maximum_number_of_inliers。split predicate是一个用户可定义的functor，用于决定一个节点是否需要拆分。
2.1 一般构建流程：
-
将当前的立方体细分为八个子立方体。
-
如果任何一个子立方体内包含多个点，则将其进一步细分为八个子立方体。
-
重复以上操作使得每个子立方体内包含最多一个点。
2.2 代码示例
这里只涉及八叉树的构建示例。
第一个例子展示了如何从元素为Point_3的向量对象构建八叉树。
#include <iostream>
#include <CGAL/Simple_cartesian.h>
#include <CGAL/Octree.h>
// Type Declarations
typedef CGAL::Simple_cartesian<double> Kernel;
typedef Kernel::Point_3 Point;
typedef std::list<Point> Point_vector;
typedef CGAL::Octree<Kernel, Point_vector> Octree;
int main() {
// Here, our point set is a vector
Point_vector points;
// Add a few points to the vector
points.emplace_back(1, 1, 1);
points.emplace_back(2, 1, -11);
points.emplace_back(2, 1, 1);
points.emplace_back(1, -2, 1);
points.emplace_back(1, 1, 1);
points.emplace_back(-1, 1, 1);
// Create an octree from the points
Octree octree(points);
// Build the octree
octree.refine(10, 20);
// Print out the tree
std::cout << octree;
return EXIT_SUCCESS;
}
在初始化Octree对象后，紧接着调用了refine()方法进行细分。这里是使用了CGAL默认的拆分谓词，即Maximum_depth_and_maximum_number_of_inliers
void refine(size_t max_depth = 10, size_t bucket_size = 20) {
refine(Orthtrees::Maximum_depth_and_maximum_number_of_inliers(max_depth, bucket_size));
}
其中，max_depth为拆分的最大深度，bucket_size为每个节点内点的最大数量。
接下来这个例子中，展示了如何从 Point_set_3 构建一个Octree。与上一个例子不同，Octree的构造形式为Orthtree<Orthtree_traits_3<GeomTraits>, PointRange, PointMap>，上个例子使用了点向量进行构建，属于最简单的构建方法，其中PointMap参数默认为Identity_property_map。而本例中，Point_set_3数据结构要求一个非默认的点映射类型和对象。
#include <fstream>
#include <iostream>
#include <CGAL/Simple_cartesian.h>
#include <CGAL/Octree.h>
#include <CGAL/Point_set_3.h>
#include <CGAL/Point_set_3/IO.h>
// Type Declarations
typedef CGAL::Simple_cartesian<double> Kernel;
typedef Kernel::Point_3 Point;
typedef CGAL::Point_set_3<Point> Point_set;
typedef Point_set::Point_map Point_map;
typedef CGAL::Octree<Kernel, Point_set, Point_map> Octree;
int main(int argc, char **argv) {
// Point set will be used to hold our points
Point_set points;
// Load points from a file.
std::ifstream stream((argc > 1) ? argv[1] : CGAL::data_file_path("points_3/cube.pwn"));
stream >> points;
if (0 == points.number_of_points()) {
std::cerr << "Error: cannot read file" << std::endl;
return EXIT_FAILURE;
}
std::cout << "loaded " << points.number_of_points() << " points\n" << std::endl;
// Create an octree from the points
Octree octree(points, points.point_map());
// Build the octree with a small bucket size, using a more verbose method
octree.refine(CGAL::Orthtrees::Maximum_depth_and_maximum_number_of_inliers(5, 10));
// Print out the tree
std::cout << octree;
return EXIT_SUCCESS;
}
所以，这里使用了points.point_map()作为PointMap参数进行构建。
以上两个例子中refine()方法都使用的是默认拆分谓词Maximum_depth_and_maximum_number_of_inliers，在下面这个例子中，展示了如何自定义拆分谓词进行八叉树细分。
#include <fstream>
#include <iostream>
#include <CGAL/Simple_cartesian.h>
#include <CGAL/Octree.h>
#include <CGAL/Point_set_3.h>
#include <CGAL/Point_set_3/IO.h>
// Type Declarations
typedef CGAL::Simple_cartesian<double> Kernel;
typedef Kernel::Point_3 Point;
typedef Kernel::FT FT;
typedef CGAL::Point_set_3<Point> Point_set;
typedef Point_set::Point_map Point_map;
typedef CGAL::Octree<Kernel, Point_set, Point_map> Octree;
// Split Predicate
// The predicate is a functor which returns a boolean value, whether a node needs to be split or not
struct Split_by_ratio {
std::size_t ratio;
Split_by_ratio(std::size_t ratio) : ratio(ratio) {}
template<class Node>
bool operator()(const Node &n) const {
return n.size() > (ratio * n.depth());
}
};
int main(int argc, char **argv) {
// Point set will be used to hold our points
Point_set points;
// Load points from a file.
std::ifstream stream((argc > 1) ? argv[1] : CGAL::data_file_path("points_3/cube.pwn"));
stream >> points;
if (0 == points.number_of_points()) {
std::cerr << "Error: cannot read file" << std::endl;
return EXIT_FAILURE;
}
std::cout << "loaded " << points.number_of_points() << " points" << std::endl;
// Create an octree from the points
Octree octree(points, points.point_map());
// Build the octree using our custom split predicate
octree.refine(Split_by_ratio(2));
// Print out the tree
std::cout << octree;
return EXIT_SUCCESS;
}
这个例子中，自定义了一个拆分谓词Split_by_ratio，对每个节点的深度和最大内点数量进行了比例限制，最大内点数量不能大于节点深度与ratio的乘积。
3 遍历
3.1 手动遍历
#include <fstream>
#include <iostream>
#include <CGAL/Simple_cartesian.h>
#include <CGAL/Octree.h>
#include <CGAL/Point_set_3.h>
#include <CGAL/Point_set_3/IO.h>
// Type Declarations
typedef CGAL::Simple_cartesian<double> Kernel;
typedef Kernel::Point_3 Point;
typedef CGAL::Point_set_3<Point> Point_set;
typedef Point_set::Point_map Point_map;
typedef CGAL::Octree<Kernel, Point_set, Point_map> Octree;
int main(int argc, char **argv) {
// Point set will be used to hold our points
Point_set points;
// Load points from a file.
std::ifstream stream((argc > 1) ? argv[1] : CGAL::data_file_path("points_3/cube.pwn"));
stream >> points;
if (0 == points.number_of_points()) {
std::cerr << "Error: cannot read file" << std::endl;
return EXIT_FAILURE;
}
std::cout << "loaded " << points.number_of_points() << " points\n" << std::endl;
// Create an octree from the points
Octree octree(points, points.point_map());
// Build the octree using the default arguments
octree.refine();
// Print out a few nodes
std::cout << "Navigation relative to the root node" << std::endl;
std::cout << "~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~" << std::endl;
std::cout << "the root node: " << std::endl;
std::cout << octree.root() << std::endl;
std::cout << "the first child of the root node: " << std::endl;
std::cout << octree.root()[0] << std::endl;
std::cout << "the fifth child: " << std::endl;
std::cout << octree.root()[4] << std::endl;
std::cout << "the fifth child, accessed without the root keyword: " << std::endl;
std::cout << octree[4] << std::endl;
std::cout << "the second child of the fourth child: " << std::endl;
std::cout << octree.root()[4][1] << std::endl;
std::cout << "the second child of the fourth child, accessed without the root keyword: " << std::endl;
std::cout << octree[4][1] << std::endl;
std::cout << std::endl;
// Retrieve one of the deeper children
Octree::Node cur = octree[3][2];
std::cout << "Navigation relative to a child node" << std::endl;
std::cout << "~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~" << std::endl;
std::cout << "the third child of the fourth child: " << std::endl;
std::cout << cur << std::endl;
std::cout << "the third child: " << std::endl;
std::cout << cur.parent() << std::endl;
std::cout << "the next sibling of the third child of the fourth child: " << std::endl;
std::cout << cur.parent()[cur.local_coordinates().to_ulong() + 1] << std::endl;
return EXIT_SUCCESS;
}
从root节点开始，子节点可以通过使用[0~7]操作符进行访问。
对于除root外的节点，可以通过访问方法parent()访问其父节点。
3.2 前序遍历
#include <fstream>
#include <iostream>
#include <CGAL/Simple_cartesian.h>
#include <CGAL/Octree.h>
#include <CGAL/Point_set_3.h>
#include <CGAL/Point_set_3/IO.h>
// Type Declarations
typedef CGAL::Simple_cartesian<double> Kernel;
typedef Kernel::Point_3 Point;
typedef CGAL::Point_set_3<Point> Point_set;
typedef Point_set::Point_map Point_map;
typedef CGAL::Octree<Kernel, Point_set, Point_map> Octree;
typedef CGAL::Orthtrees::Preorder_traversal Preorder_traversal;
int main(int argc, char **argv) {
// Point set will be used to hold our points
Point_set points;
// Load points from a file.
std::ifstream stream((argc > 1) ? argv[1] : CGAL::data_file_path("points_3/cube.pwn"));
stream >> points;
if (0 == points.number_of_points()) {
std::cerr << "Error: cannot read file" << std::endl;
return EXIT_FAILURE;
}
std::cout << "loaded " << points.number_of_points() << " points\n" << std::endl;
// Create an octree from the points
Octree octree(points, points.point_map());
// Build the octree
octree.refine();
// Print out the octree using preorder traversal
for (Octree::Node node : octree.traverse<Preorder_traversal>()) {
std::cout << node << std::endl;
}
return EXIT_SUCCESS;
}
octree.traverse<Preorder_traversal>()输出八叉树的前序遍历迭代器。
3.3 自定义遍历
通过构建 OrthtreeTraversal概念模型，实现自定义遍历策略。
#include <fstream>
#include <iostream>
#include <CGAL/Simple_cartesian.h>
#include <CGAL/Octree.h>
#include <CGAL/Point_set_3.h>
#include <CGAL/Point_set_3/IO.h>
// Type Declarations
typedef CGAL::Simple_cartesian<double> Kernel;
typedef Kernel::Point_3 Point;
typedef CGAL::Point_set_3<Point> Point_set;
typedef Point_set::Point_map Point_map;
typedef CGAL::Octree<Kernel, Point_set, Point_map> Octree;
typedef Octree::Node Node;
struct First_branch_traversal
{
Node first (Node root) const
{
return root;
}
Node next (Node n) const
{
if (n.is_leaf())
return Node();
return n[0];
}
};
int main(int argc, char **argv) {
// Point set will be used to hold our points
Point_set points;
// Load points from a file.
std::ifstream stream((argc > 1) ? argv[1] : CGAL::data_file_path("points_3/cube.pwn"));
stream >> points;
if (0 == points.number_of_points()) {
std::cerr << "Error: cannot read file" << std::endl;
return EXIT_FAILURE;
}
std::cout << "loaded " << points.number_of_points() << " points\n" << std::endl;
// Create an octree from the points
Octree octree(points, points.point_map());
// Build the octree
octree.refine();
// Print out the first branch using custom traversal
for (auto &node : octree.traverse<First_branch_traversal>())
std::cout << node << std::endl;
return EXIT_SUCCESS;
}
下图展示了不同遍历策略的具体遍历情况。
4 任务加速
构建八叉树的目的在于，可以利用其高效的搜索能力对不同的任务进行加速。
4.1 寻找最邻近点
注意，对于此任务k-d树的加速效果要优于八叉树，实际中首选前者，除非用到八叉树的特有功能。
#include <fstream>
#include <iostream>
#include <CGAL/Simple_cartesian.h>
#include <CGAL/Octree.h>
#include <CGAL/Point_set_3.h>
#include <CGAL/Point_set_3/IO.h>
#include <boost/iterator/function_output_iterator.hpp>
// Type Declarations
typedef CGAL::Simple_cartesian<double> Kernel;
typedef Kernel::Point_3 Point;
typedef CGAL::Point_set_3<Point> Point_set;
typedef Point_set::Point_map Point_map;
typedef CGAL::Octree<Kernel, Point_set, Point_map> Octree;
int main(int argc, char **argv) {
// Point set will be used to hold our points
Point_set points;
// Load points from a file.
std::ifstream stream((argc > 1) ? argv[1] : CGAL::data_file_path("points_3/cube.pwn"));
stream >> points;
if (0 == points.number_of_points()) {
std::cerr << "Error: cannot read file" << std::endl;
return EXIT_FAILURE;
}
std::cout << "loaded " << points.number_of_points() << " points" << std::endl;
// Create an octree from the points
Octree octree(points, points.point_map());
// Build the octree
octree.refine(10, 20);
// Find the nearest points to a few locations
std::vector<Point> points_to_find = {
{0, 0, 0},
{1, 1, 1},
{-1, -1, -1},
{-0.46026, -0.25353, 0.32051},
{-0.460261, -0.253533, 0.320513}
};
for (const Point& p : points_to_find)
octree.nearest_neighbors
(p, 1, // k=1 to find the single closest point
boost::make_function_output_iterator
([&](const Point& nearest)
{
std::cout << "the nearest point to (" << p <<
") is (" << nearest << ")" << std::endl;
}));
return EXIT_SUCCESS;
}
4.2 分级
下面例子展示了如何使用分级方法消除八叉树在深度上的大跳跃。其中使用 grade()对八叉树节点进行划分，使相邻节点在深度上的差别不大于1。
#include <iostream>
#include <CGAL/Simple_cartesian.h>
#include <CGAL/Octree.h>
// Type Declarations
typedef CGAL::Simple_cartesian<double> Kernel;
typedef Kernel::Point_3 Point;
typedef std::vector<Point> Point_vector;
typedef CGAL::Octree<Kernel, Point_vector> Octree;
int main() {
// Here, our point set is a vector
Point_vector points;
// Add a few points to the vector, most of which are in one region
points.emplace_back(1, 1, 1);
points.emplace_back(2, 1, -11);
points.emplace_back(2, 1, 1);
points.emplace_back(1, -2, 1);
points.emplace_back(1, 1, 1);
points.emplace_back(-1, 1, 1);
points.emplace_back(-1.1, 1, 1);
points.emplace_back(-1.01, 1, 1);
points.emplace_back(-1.001, 1, 1);
points.emplace_back(-1.0001, 1, 1);
points.emplace_back(-1.0001, 1, 1);
// Create an octree from the points
Octree octree(points);
// Build the octree with a small bucket size, so we get a deep node
octree.refine(10, 2);
// Print out the tree
std::cout << "\nUn-graded tree" << std::endl;
std::cout << "~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~" << std::endl;
std::cout << octree << std::endl;
// Grade the tree to eliminate large jumps in depth
octree.grade();
// Print out the tree again
std::cout << "\nGraded tree" << std::endl;
std::cout << "~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~" << std::endl;
std::cout << octree << std::endl;
return EXIT_SUCCESS;
}
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