不变子群、商群与群同态基本定理
不变子群
定义:设 H ≤ G H\le G H≤G,若 ∀ a ∈ G , a ⋅ H = H ⋅ a \forall a\in G, a\cdot H = H\cdot a ∀a∈G,a⋅H=H⋅a,则称 H H H是 G G G的不变子群,也称正规子群,记作 H ◃ G H \triangleleft G H◃G
定理1:设 H ≤ G H\le G H≤G,则下列条件等价:
(1) H ◃ G H\triangleleft G H◃G
(2) ∀ a ∈ G , a ⋅ H ⋅ a − 1 = H \forall a \in G, a\cdot H\cdot a^{-1}=H ∀a∈G,a⋅H⋅a−1=H
(3)
∀
a
∈
G
,
a
⋅
H
⋅
a
−
1
⊆
H
\forall a\in G,a\cdot H \cdot a^{-1}\subseteq H
∀a∈G,a⋅H⋅a−1⊆H
(4)
∀
a
∈
G
,
∀
h
∈
H
,
a
⋅
h
⋅
a
−
1
∈
H
\forall a \in G,\forall h \in H, a\cdot h\cdot a^{-1}\in H
∀a∈G,∀h∈H,a⋅h⋅a−1∈H
证明:
(
1
)
⇒
(
2
)
(1)\Rightarrow(2)
(1)⇒(2) 设
H
◃
G
H\triangleleft G
H◃G,则
∀
a
∈
G
\forall a\in G
∀a∈G,有
a
⋅
H
=
H
⋅
a
a\cdot H = H\cdot a
a⋅H=H⋅a,所以
a
⋅
H
⋅
a
−
1
=
(
H
⋅
a
)
⋅
a
−
1
=
H
⋅
(
a
⋅
a
−
1
)
=
H
⋅
e
=
H
a\cdot H\cdot a^{-1}=\left(H\cdot a\right)\cdot a^{-1}=H\cdot \left(a\cdot a^{-1}\right)=H\cdot e = H
a⋅H⋅a−1=(H⋅a)⋅a−1=H⋅(a⋅a−1)=H⋅e=H
(
2
)
⇒
(
3
)
(2)\Rightarrow(3)
(2)⇒(3),和
(
3
)
⇒
(
4
)
(3)\Rightarrow(4)
(3)⇒(4)显然
( 4 ) ⇒ ( 1 ) (4)\Rightarrow(1) (4)⇒(1) 设 ∀ a ∈ G , ∀ h ∈ H , a ⋅ h ⋅ a − 1 ∈ H \forall a \in G,\forall h \in H, a\cdot h\cdot a^{-1}\in H ∀a∈G,∀h∈H,a⋅h⋅a−1∈H
因为
a
−
1
∈
G
a^{-1}\in G
a−1∈G,所以
a
−
1
⋅
h
⋅
a
∈
H
a^{-1}\cdot h\cdot a\in H
a−1⋅h⋅a∈H,于是
∃
h
1
,
h
2
∈
H
\exists h_1,h_2\in H
∃h1,h2∈H,使
a
⋅
h
⋅
a
−
1
=
h
1
,
a
−
1
⋅
h
⋅
a
=
h
2
a\cdot h\cdot a^{-1}=h_1, a^{-1}\cdot h\cdot a=h_2
a⋅h⋅a−1=h1,a−1⋅h⋅a=h2,所以
a
⋅
h
=
h
1
⋅
a
∈
H
⋅
a
,
h
⋅
a
=
a
⋅
h
2
∈
a
⋅
H
a\cdot h=h_1\cdot a\in H\cdot a,\quad h\cdot a=a\cdot h_2\in a\cdot H
a⋅h=h1⋅a∈H⋅a,h⋅a=a⋅h2∈a⋅H
所以
a
⋅
H
⊆
H
⋅
a
,
H
⋅
a
⊆
a
⋅
H
a\cdot H \subseteq H\cdot a, H\cdot a\subseteq a\cdot H
a⋅H⊆H⋅a,H⋅a⊆a⋅H
故 a ⋅ H = H ⋅ a a\cdot H=H\cdot a a⋅H=H⋅a,因此 H ◃ G H\triangleleft G H◃G
定理2:设 H ◃ G H\triangleleft G H◃G,则 G G G关于 H H H的陪集关系 R R R是 G G G上的同余关系
证明: R R R是等价关系
∀ a , b , c , d ∈ G \forall a,b,c,d\in G ∀a,b,c,d∈G,若 a R b , c R d aRb,cRd aRb,cRd,则 a ⋅ H = H ⋅ b , c ⋅ H = H ⋅ d a\cdot H=H\cdot b,c\cdot H = H\cdot d a⋅H=H⋅b,c⋅H=H⋅d,所以
( a ⋅ c ) ⋅ H = a ⋅ ( c ⋅ H ) = a ⋅ ( H ⋅ d ) = ( a ⋅ H ) ⋅ d = ( H ⋅ b ) ⋅ d = H ⋅ ( b ⋅ d ) \begin{aligned} \left(a\cdot c\right)\cdot H &= a\cdot\left(c\cdot H\right)\\ &=a\cdot\left(H\cdot d\right)\\ &=\left(a\cdot H\right)\cdot d\\ &=\left(H\cdot b\right)\cdot d\\ &=H\cdot \left(b\cdot d\right) \end{aligned} (a⋅c)⋅H=a⋅(c⋅H)=a⋅(H⋅d)=(a⋅H)⋅d=(H⋅b)⋅d=H⋅(b⋅d)
故 ( a ⋅ c ) R ( b ⋅ d ) \left(a\cdot c\right) R \left(b\cdot d\right) (a⋅c)R(b⋅d)
定理3:设 R R R是群 G G G上的同余关系,则 [ e ] R ◃ G \left[e\right]_R\triangleleft G [e]R◃G,且 R R R是 G G G关于 [ e ] R \left[e\right]_R [e]R的陪集关系
证明:
(1)
[
e
]
R
≤
G
\left[e\right]_R\le G
[e]R≤G。
∀
a
,
b
∈
[
e
]
R
\forall a,b\in \left[e\right]_R
∀a,b∈[e]R,知
a
R
e
,
e
R
b
aRe,eRb
aRe,eRb。又因为
b
−
1
R
b
−
1
b^{-1}Rb^{-1}
b−1Rb−1,所以
(
a
⋅
e
⋅
b
−
1
)
R
(
e
⋅
b
⋅
b
−
1
)
\left(a\cdot e\cdot b^{-1}\right)R\left(e\cdot b\cdot b^{-1}\right)
(a⋅e⋅b−1)R(e⋅b⋅b−1),即
(
a
⋅
b
−
1
)
R
e
\left(a\cdot b^{-1}\right)Re
(a⋅b−1)Re,故
a
⋅
b
−
1
∈
[
e
]
R
a\cdot b^{-1}\in \left[e\right]_R
a⋅b−1∈[e]R
(2)
[
e
]
R
◃
G
\left[e\right]_R\triangleleft G
[e]R◃G。
∀
a
∈
G
,
∀
h
∈
[
e
]
R
\forall a\in G, \forall h \in \left[e\right]_R
∀a∈G,∀h∈[e]R,则
a
R
a
,
h
R
e
,
a
−
1
R
a
−
1
aRa,hRe,a^{-1}Ra^{-1}
aRa,hRe,a−1Ra−1。所以
(
a
⋅
h
⋅
a
−
1
)
R
(
a
⋅
e
⋅
a
−
1
)
\left(a\cdot h\cdot a^{-1}\right)R\left(a\cdot e\cdot a^{-1}\right)
(a⋅h⋅a−1)R(a⋅e⋅a−1),即
(
a
⋅
h
⋅
a
−
1
)
∈
[
e
]
R
\left(a\cdot h \cdot a{-1}\right)\in \left[e\right]_R
(a⋅h⋅a−1)∈[e]R
(3)
1. [ a ] R ⊆ a ⋅ [ e ] R \left[a\right]_R\subseteq a\cdot \left[e\right]_R [a]R⊆a⋅[e]R。 ∀ x ∈ [ a ] R \forall x\in \left[a\right]_R ∀x∈[a]R则 x R a xR a xRa。又因为 a − 1 R a − 1 a^{-1}Ra^{-1} a−1Ra−1,所以 ( a − 1 ⋅ x ) R e \left(a^{-1}\cdot x\right)Re (a−1⋅x)Re,所以 a − 1 ⋅ x ∈ [ e ] R a^{-1}\cdot x\in\left[e\right]_R a−1⋅x∈[e]R,故 x ∈ a ⋅ [ e ] R x\in a\cdot \left[e\right]_R x∈a⋅[e]R
2. a ⋅ [ e ] R ⊆ [ a ] R a\cdot \left[e\right]_R\subseteq \left[a\right]_R a⋅[e]R⊆[a]R。 ∀ x ∈ a ⋅ [ e ] R \forall x\in a\cdot \left[e\right]_R ∀x∈a⋅[e]R,则 ∃ h ∈ [ e ] R \exists h \in \left[e\right]_R ∃h∈[e]R,使 x = a ⋅ h x=a\cdot h x=a⋅h。
因为 a R a , h R e aRa,hRe aRa,hRe,所以 ( a ⋅ h ) R ( a ⋅ e ) \left(a\cdot h\right) R \left(a\cdot e\right) (a⋅h)R(a⋅e),则 x R a xRa xRa,故 x ∈ [ a ] R x\in \left[a\right]_R x∈[a]R
商群
定理1:设 H ◃ G H\triangleleft G H◃G,则 G G G关于 H H H的陪集关系的商代数 < G / H , ⊙ > \left<G/H,\odot\right> ⟨G/H,⊙⟩使群,称为 G G G关于 H H H的商群
其中 G / H = { a ⋅ H ∣ a ∈ G } G/H=\left\{a\cdot H|a\in G\right\} G/H={a⋅H∣a∈G},并且 ∀ a ⋅ H , b ⋅ H ∈ G / H , ( a ⋅ H ) ⊙ ( b ⋅ H ) = ( a ⋅ b ) ⋅ H \forall a\cdot H, b\cdot H\in G/H, \left(a\cdot H\right)\odot \left(b\cdot H\right)=\left(a\cdot b\right)\cdot H ∀a⋅H,b⋅H∈G/H,(a⋅H)⊙(b⋅H)=(a⋅b)⋅H
证明:
由于
H
◃
G
H\triangleleft G
H◃G,则
⊙
\odot
⊙是
G
/
H
G/H
G/H上的二元运算,因为若
a
⋅
H
=
a
′
⋅
H
,
b
⋅
H
=
b
′
⋅
H
a\cdot H = a^{\prime}\cdot H, b\cdot H = b^{\prime} \cdot H
a⋅H=a′⋅H,b⋅H=b′⋅H,
则
a
=
a
′
⋅
h
1
,
b
=
b
′
⋅
h
2
(
h
1
,
h
2
∈
H
)
a=a^{\prime}\cdot h_1, b = b^{\prime}\cdot h_2\left(h_1,h_2\in H\right)
a=a′⋅h1,b=b′⋅h2(h1,h2∈H),所以
a
⋅
b
=
a
′
⋅
(
h
1
⋅
b
′
)
⋅
h
2
=
a
′
⋅
b
′
⋅
(
h
3
⋅
h
2
)
(
h
3
∈
H
)
a\cdot b = a^{\prime}\cdot \left(h_1\cdot b^{\prime}\right)\cdot h_2=a^{\prime}\cdot b^{\prime}\cdot \left(h_3\cdot h_2\right)\quad \left(h_3\in H\right)
a⋅b=a′⋅(h1⋅b′)⋅h2=a′⋅b′⋅(h3⋅h2)(h3∈H)
即
(
a
′
⋅
b
′
)
−
1
⋅
(
a
⋅
b
)
∈
H
\left(a^{\prime}\cdot b^{\prime}\right)^{-1}\cdot \left(a\cdot b\right) \in H
(a′⋅b′)−1⋅(a⋅b)∈H,故
(
a
⋅
b
)
⋅
H
=
(
a
′
⋅
b
′
)
⋅
H
\left(a\cdot b\right) \cdot H=\left(a^{\prime}\cdot b^{\prime}\right)\cdot H
(a⋅b)⋅H=(a′⋅b′)⋅H,从而
(
a
⋅
H
)
⊙
(
b
⋅
H
)
=
(
a
′
⋅
H
)
⊙
(
b
′
⋅
H
)
\left(a\cdot H\right)\odot \left(b\cdot H\right) = \left(a^{\prime}\cdot H\right) \odot\left(b^{\prime}\cdot H\right)
(a⋅H)⊙(b⋅H)=(a′⋅H)⊙(b′⋅H)
由
⋅
\cdot
⋅的结合性,易证
⊙
\odot
⊙也是可结合的,而
H
H
H是
<
G
/
H
,
⊙
>
\left<G/H,\odot\right>
⟨G/H,⊙⟩的单位元
a
⋅
H
a\cdot H
a⋅H的关于
⊙
\odot
⊙的逆元为
a
−
1
⋅
H
a^{-1}\cdot H
a−1⋅H,故
<
G
/
H
,
⊙
>
\left<G/H,\odot\right>
⟨G/H,⊙⟩是群
设
H
H
H是有限群
G
G
G的不变子群,则由拉格朗日定理由,
∣
G
/
H
∣
=
∣
G
∣
/
∣
H
∣
\left|G/H\right|=\left|G\right|/\left|H\right|
∣G/H∣=∣G∣/∣H∣
群同态基本定理
定义:设 f f f是 < G , ⋅ > \left<G,\cdot \right> ⟨G,⋅⟩到 < G ′ , ∗ > \left<G^{\prime},*\right> ⟨G′,∗⟩的群同态, e ′ e^{\prime} e′是 G ′ G^{\prime} G′的单位元,则集合 { a ∈ G ∣ f ( a ) = e ′ } \left\{a\in G|f\left(a\right)=e^{\prime}\right\} {a∈G∣f(a)=e′}称为 f f f的同态核,记为 k e r f \mathop{ker} f kerf
群同态基本定理:设
f
f
f是
<
G
,
⋅
>
\left<G,\cdot \right>
⟨G,⋅⟩到
<
G
′
,
∗
>
\left<G^{\prime}, *\right>
⟨G′,∗⟩的群同态,则
k
e
r
f
◃
G
\mathop{ker} f\triangleleft G
kerf◃G,
并且
<
G
/
k
e
r
f
,
⊙
>
≅
<
f
(
G
)
,
∗
>
\left<G/\mathop{ker} f,\odot\right>\cong \left<f\left(G\right),*\right>
⟨G/kerf,⊙⟩≅⟨f(G),∗⟩
证明:先证明
k
e
r
f
◃
G
\mathop{ker} f\triangleleft G
kerf◃G。因为
∀
k
1
,
k
2
∈
k
e
r
f
\forall k_1,k_2\in \mathop{ker} f
∀k1,k2∈kerf,由
f
(
k
1
)
=
f
(
k
2
)
=
e
′
f\left(k_1\right)=f\left(k_2\right)=e^{\prime}
f(k1)=f(k2)=e′,所以
f
(
k
1
⋅
k
2
−
1
)
=
f
(
k
1
)
∗
f
(
k
2
)
−
1
=
e
′
∗
e
′
=
e
′
f\left(k_1\cdot k_2^{-1}\right) = f\left(k_1\right)*f\left(k_2\right)^{-1}=e^{\prime}*e^{\prime}=e^{\prime}
f(k1⋅k2−1)=f(k1)∗f(k2)−1=e′∗e′=e′
故
k
1
⋅
k
2
−
1
∈
k
e
r
f
k_1\cdot k_2^{-1}\in \mathop{ker} f
k1⋅k2−1∈kerf.又因为
∀
g
∈
G
,
k
∈
k
e
r
f
\forall g\in G,k\in \mathop{ker} f
∀g∈G,k∈kerf
f
(
g
⋅
k
⋅
g
−
1
)
=
f
(
g
)
∗
f
(
k
)
∗
f
(
g
−
1
)
=
f
(
g
)
∗
e
′
∗
f
(
g
)
−
1
=
e
′
f\left(g\cdot k \cdot g^{-1}\right)=f\left(g\right) * f\left(k\right) * f\left(g^{-1}\right)=f\left(g\right)*e^{\prime}*f\left(g\right)^{-1}=e^{\prime}
f(g⋅k⋅g−1)=f(g)∗f(k)∗f(g−1)=f(g)∗e′∗f(g)−1=e′
故
g
⋅
k
⋅
g
−
1
∈
k
e
r
f
g\cdot k \cdot g^{-1}\in \mathop{ker} f
g⋅k⋅g−1∈kerf,从而
k
e
r
f
◃
G
\mathop{ker} f\triangleleft G
kerf◃G
再证
<
G
/
k
e
r
f
,
⊙
>
≅
<
f
(
G
)
,
∗
>
\left<G/\mathop{ker} f,\odot\right>\cong \left<f\left(G\right),*\right>
⟨G/kerf,⊙⟩≅⟨f(G),∗⟩,作
ϕ
:
G
/
k
e
r
f
→
f
(
G
)
,
ϕ
(
g
⋅
k
e
r
f
)
=
f
(
g
)
\phi: G/\mathop{ker} f\to f\left(G\right),\phi\left(g\cdot \mathop{ker} f\right)=f\left(g\right)
ϕ:G/kerf→f(G),ϕ(g⋅kerf)=f(g)
则
1.
ϕ
\phi
ϕ是映射且是单射,因为
∀
g
1
⋅
k
e
r
f
,
g
2
⋅
k
e
r
f
∈
G
/
k
e
r
f
\forall g_1\cdot \mathop{ker} f,g_2 \cdot \mathop{ker} f\in G / \mathop{ker}f
∀g1⋅kerf,g2⋅kerf∈G/kerf
ϕ
(
g
1
⋅
k
e
r
f
)
=
ϕ
(
g
2
⋅
k
e
r
f
)
⇔
f
(
g
1
)
=
f
(
g
2
)
⇔
f
(
g
2
)
−
1
∗
f
(
g
1
)
=
e
′
⇔
f
(
g
2
−
1
⋅
g
1
)
=
e
′
⇔
g
2
−
1
⋅
g
1
∈
k
e
r
f
⇔
g
1
⋅
k
e
r
f
=
g
2
⋅
k
e
r
f
\begin{aligned} &\phi\left(g_1\cdot \mathop{ker} f\right) = \phi\left(g_2\cdot \mathop{ker} f\right)\\ &\quad\Leftrightarrow f\left(g_1\right) =f\left(g_2\right)\\ &\quad\Leftrightarrow f\left(g_2\right)^{-1}*f\left(g_1\right)=e^{\prime}\\ &\quad\Leftrightarrow f\left(g_2^{-1}\cdot g_1\right)=e^{\prime}\\ &\quad\Leftrightarrow g_2^{-1}\cdot g_1\in\mathop{ker} f\\ &\quad\Leftrightarrow g_1\cdot \mathop{ker}f = g_2\cdot \mathop{ker}f \end{aligned}
ϕ(g1⋅kerf)=ϕ(g2⋅kerf)⇔f(g1)=f(g2)⇔f(g2)−1∗f(g1)=e′⇔f(g2−1⋅g1)=e′⇔g2−1⋅g1∈kerf⇔g1⋅kerf=g2⋅kerf
2.
ϕ
\phi
ϕ是满射。
∀
f
(
g
)
∈
f
(
G
)
\forall f\left(g\right) \in f\left(G\right)
∀f(g)∈f(G),由
g
∈
G
g\in G
g∈G,所以有
g
⋅
k
e
r
f
∈
G
/
k
e
r
f
g\cdot \mathop{ker}f \in G/ \mathop{ker}f
g⋅kerf∈G/kerf,使
ϕ
(
g
⋅
k
e
r
f
)
=
f
(
g
)
\phi\left(g\cdot \mathop{ker}f\right)=f\left(g\right)
ϕ(g⋅kerf)=f(g)
3.
ϕ
\phi
ϕ是同态映射。
∀
g
1
⋅
k
e
r
f
,
g
2
⋅
k
e
r
f
∈
G
/
k
e
r
f
\forall g_1\cdot \mathop{ker}f,g_2\cdot \mathop{ker}f\in G/ \mathop{ker}f
∀g1⋅kerf,g2⋅kerf∈G/kerf
ϕ
(
g
1
⋅
k
e
r
f
⊙
g
2
⋅
k
e
r
f
)
=
ϕ
(
(
g
1
⋅
g
2
)
⋅
k
e
r
f
)
=
f
(
g
1
⋅
g
2
)
=
f
(
g
1
)
⋅
f
(
g
2
)
=
ϕ
(
g
1
⋅
k
e
r
f
)
∗
ϕ
(
g
2
⋅
k
e
r
f
)
\begin{aligned} \phi\left(g_1\cdot \mathop{ker}f \odot g_2\cdot \mathop{ker}f\right)&=\phi\left(\left(g_1\cdot g_2\right)\cdot \mathop{ker}f\right)\\ &=f\left(g_1\cdot g_2\right)\\ &=f\left(g_1\right)\cdot f\left(g_2\right)\\ &=\phi\left(g_1\cdot \mathop{ker}f\right)*\phi\left(g_2\cdot \mathop{ker}f\right)\\ \end{aligned}
ϕ(g1⋅kerf⊙g2⋅kerf)=ϕ((g1⋅g2)⋅kerf)=f(g1⋅g2)=f(g1)⋅f(g2)=ϕ(g1⋅kerf)∗ϕ(g2⋅kerf)
故
<
G
/
k
e
r
f
,
⊙
>
≅
<
f
(
G
)
,
∗
>
\left<G/ \mathop{ker}f,\odot\right>\cong \left<f\left(G\right),*\right>
⟨G/kerf,⊙⟩≅⟨f(G),∗⟩
推论:设 f f f是群 G G G到 G ′ G^{\prime} G′的满同态,则 G / k e r f ≅ G ′ G/\mathop{ker}f\cong G^{\prime} G/kerf≅G′
课后习题
1.求出4次交代群 A 4 A_4 A4中 H = { ( 1 ) , ( 1 , 2 ) ( 3 , 4 ) , ( 1 , 3 ) ( 2 , 4 ) , ( 1 , 4 ) ( 2 , 3 ) } H=\left\{\left(1\right), \left(1,2\right)\left(3,4\right),\left(1,3\right)\left(2,4\right),\left(1,4\right)\left(2,3\right)\right\} H={(1),(1,2)(3,4),(1,3)(2,4),(1,4)(2,3)}的左、右陪集,并验证 H H H是 A 4 A_4 A4的不变子集
2.令 G = { ( r s 0 1 ) ∣ r , s ∈ Q , r ≠ 0 } G=\left\{\begin{pmatrix}r&s\\0&1\\\end{pmatrix}|r,s\in\mathbb{Q},r\neq 0\right\} G={(r0s1)∣r,s∈Q,r=0},则 G G G关于矩阵乘法构成群。令 H = { ( 1 t 0 1 ) ∣ t ∈ Q } H=\left\{\begin{pmatrix}1&t\\0&1\\\end{pmatrix}|t\in\mathbb{Q}\right\} H={(10t1)∣t∈Q},试证: H H H是 G G G的不变子群
3.群 G G G的中心 C ( G ) C\left(G\right) C(G)定义为 C ( G ) = { a ∈ G ∣ ∀ x ∈ G , a x = x a } C\left(G\right)=\left\{a\in G|\forall x \in G,ax=xa\right\} C(G)={a∈G∣∀x∈G,ax=xa}.证明: C ( G ) C\left(G\right) C(G)是 G G G的不变子群
4.设 H H H是群 < G , ⋅ > \left<G,\cdot\right> ⟨G,⋅⟩的子群, H H H的正规化子 N ( H ) N\left(H\right) N(H)定义为 N ( H ) = { a ∈ G ∣ a ⋅ H ⋅ a − 1 = H } N\left(H\right)=\left\{a\in G|a\cdot H\cdot a^{-1}=H\right\} N(H)={a∈G∣a⋅H⋅a−1=H}.证明: H H H是 N ( H ) N\left(H\right) N(H)的不变子群
5.证明:指数为
2
2
2的子群必为不变子群。
6.设
H
H
H和
K
K
K都是群
G
G
G的不变子群。证明:
H
∩
K
H\cap K
H∩K和
H
K
HK
HK也是
G
G
G的不变子群
7.设
K
◃
H
,
H
◃
G
K\triangleleft H, H\triangleleft G
K◃H,H◃G.问是否一定有
K
◃
G
K\triangleleft G
K◃G?证明或举出反例
8.设
H
H
H是循环群
G
G
G的子群.证明:
G
/
H
G/H
G/H也是循环群。
9.设
H
,
K
H,K
H,K是
G
G
G的不变子群,且
G
/
H
,
G
/
K
G/H,G/K
G/H,G/K是可交换的。证明:
G
/
H
∩
K
G/H\cap K
G/H∩K也是可交换的
10.设
f
f
f是从群
G
1
G_1
G1到
G
2
G_2
G2的满同态,
H
2
◃
G
2
H_2\triangleleft G_2
H2◃G2。证明:
G
1
/
f
−
1
(
H
2
)
≅
G
2
/
H
2
G_1/f^{-1}\left(H_2\right)\cong G_2/H_2
G1/f−1(H2)≅G2/H2
11.设
K
◃
G
,
H
≤
G
K\triangleleft G, H\le G
K◃G,H≤G.证明:
H
/
(
H
∩
K
)
≅
H
K
/
K
H/\left(H\cap K\right)\cong HK/K
H/(H∩K)≅HK/K
参考:
离散数学(刘玉珍)