Being cautious 谨慎
One of the most noticeable stylistic aspects of academic communication is the tendency for writers to avoid expressing absolute certainty, where there may be a small degree of uncertainty, and to avoid making over-generalisations, where a small number of exceptions might exist. This means that there are many instances where the epistemological strength (strength of knowledge) of a statement or claim is mitigated (weakened) in some way. In the field of linguistics, devices for lessening the strength of a statement or claim are known as hedging devices.Analysis of research reports have shown that discussion sections tend to be particularly rich in hedging devices, particularly where writers are offering explanations for findings.
学术交流最引人注目的文体方面之一是，作者倾向于避免表达绝对的确定性，其中可能存在少量的不确定性，并避免过度概括，因为可能存在少量的例外情况。这意味着在许多情况下，陈述或主张的认识论强度（知识强度）以某种方式被减轻（削弱）。在语言学领域，降低陈述或索赔强度的手段被称为对冲手段。对研究报告的分析表明，讨论部分往往特别具有对冲手段，尤其是在作者为调查结果提供解释的地方。
Devices that distance the author from a proposition
使作者与命题保持距离的设备
Being cautious when giving explanations
解释时要谨慎
| These frequent storms 这些频繁的风暴 | may be 可能 could be 可能是 might be 可能是 are almost certainly 几乎可以肯定 | due to climate change. 由于气候变化。 |
| It may be 可能是 It is likely 很有可能 It could be 可能是 It is possible 这是可能的 It is probable 很有可能 It is almost certain 几乎可以肯定 | the more extreme weather 更极端的天气 | is a result of climate change. 是气候变化的结果。 |
| A likely explanation 可能的解释 A probable explanation 可能的解释 A possible explanation 可能的解释 | is that 那是 | these frequent storms 这些频繁的风暴 | are a result of climate change. 是气候变化的结果。 |
Being cautious when explaining results
解释结果时要谨慎
This inconsistency may be due to …
这种不一致可能是由于 ...
This discrepancy could be attributed to …
这种差异可以归因于......
A possible explanation for this might be that …
对此的一个可能的解释可能是......
This rather contradictory result may be due to …
这个相当矛盾的结果可能是由于......
It seems possible that these results are due to …
这些结果似乎可能是由于......
The observed increase in X could be attributed to …
观察到的 X 增加可归因于......
The possible interference of X cannot be ruled out …
不能排除 X 可能的干扰......
There are several possible explanations for this result.
对于这个结果，有几种可能的解释。
There are two likely causes for the differences between …
两者之间的差异可能有两个原因......
A possible explanation for these results may be the lack of adequate …
这些结果的一个可能解释可能是缺乏足够的......
Since this difference has not been found elsewhere it is probably not due to …
由于这种差异在其他地方没有发现，这可能不是由于......
Advising cautious interpretation of results
建议谨慎解释结果
(Also refer to Discussing Findings)
（另请参阅讨论结果）
These findings cannot be extrapolated to all patients.
这些发现不能外推到所有患者。
These data must be interpreted with caution because …
必须谨慎解释这些数据，因为......
These results therefore need to be interpreted with caution.
因此，需要谨慎解释这些结果。
These results do not rule out the influence of other factors in …
这些结果不排除其他因素的影响 ...
This account must be approached with some caution because …
必须谨慎处理这个账户，因为......
It is important to bear in mind the possible bias in these responses.
重要的是要记住这些回答中可能存在的偏见。
Although exclusion of X did not …, these results should be interpreted with caution.
尽管排除 X 没有 ...，但应谨慎解释这些结果。
However, with a small sample size, caution must be applied, as the findings might not be …
但是，对于小样本量，必须谨慎行事，因为结果可能不是......
Being cautious when discussing implications
讨论影响时要谨慎
The findings of this study suggest that …
这项研究的结果表明......
One possible implication of this is that …
这其中的一个可能含义是......
Taken together, these results suggest that …
综上所述，这些结果表明......
The evidence from this study suggests that …
这项研究的证据表明......
Initial observations suggest that there may be a link between …
初步观察表明，......
The data reported here appear to support the assumption that …
此处报告的数据似乎支持以下假设......
The findings from these studies suggest that X can have an effect on …
这些研究的结果表明，X 可以对 ...
Being cautious when discussing recommendations
讨论建议时要谨慎
Strategies to enhance X might involve …
增强 X 的策略可能包括......
Other types of response could include: a), b). …
其他类型的响应可能包括：a）、b）。…
These results would seem to suggest that the …
这些结果似乎表明......
There would therefore seem to be a definite need for …
因此，似乎肯定需要......
A reasonable approach to tackle this issue could be to …
解决此问题的合理方法可能是......
Another possible area of future research would be to investigate why …
未来研究的另一个可能领域是调查为什么......
Being cautious when writing about the future
在撰写未来时要谨慎
| Severe weather 恶劣天气 | may 五月 could 能 might 可能 is likely to 可能会 will probably 可能会 will almost certainly 几乎可以肯定 | become more common in the future. 在未来变得更加普遍。 |
| It is likely 很有可能 It is possible 这是可能的 It is almost certain 几乎可以肯定 There is a possibility 有可能 There is a small chance 机会很小 There is a strong possibility 很有可能 | (that) the situation will improve in the long term. 从长远来看，情况会有所改善。 |
Devices for avoiding over-generalisation
避免过度概括的装置
In general, this requires …
一般来说，这需要......
In general terms, this means …
一般来说，这意味着......
Xs use generally accepted principles to …
X 使用公认的原则来......
X is generally assumed to play a role in …
通常假设 X 在 ...
Authors generally place an emphasis on …
作者通常强调......
Generally accepted methods for X include: …
普遍接受的 X 方法包括：...
Studies which show no effect are not generally published.
显示没有效果的研究通常不会发表。
Research articles generally consist of the following components:
研究文章通常由以下部分组成：
Quantitative research is generally associated with the positivist paradigm.
定量研究通常与实证主义范式相关联。
| Ozone levels 臭氧水平 | often 经常 generally 一般 frequently 经常 sometimes 有时 occasionally 偶尔 nearly always 几乎总是 | exceed WHO levels in many cities. 许多城市超过了 WHO 的水平。 |
| Ozone is toxic to 臭氧对 | most 最 almost all 几乎所有 some types of 某些类型的 many types of 多种类型 the majority of 大多数 certain types of 某些类型的 | living organisms. 生物。 |
Ozone tends to attack cells and break down tissues.
臭氧往往会攻击细胞并分解组织。
There is a tendency for ozone to attack cells.
臭氧有攻击细胞的趋势。
Being critical 挑剔
As an academic writer, you are expected to be critical of the sources that you use. This essentially means questioning what you read and not necessarily agreeing with it just because the information has been published. Being critical can also mean looking for reasons why we should not just accept something as being correct or true. This can require you to identify problems with a writer’s arguments or methods, or perhaps to refer to other people’s criticisms of these. Constructive criticism goes beyond this by suggesting ways in which a piece of research or writing could be improved.
作为一名学术作家，您应该对您使用的来源持批评态度。这本质上意味着质疑您阅读的内容，并且不一定仅仅因为信息已发布就同意它。批判也可能意味着寻找理由，为什么我们不应该仅仅接受某件事是正确的或真实的。这可能需要你找出作者的论点或方法的问题，或者可能参考其他人对这些的批评。建设性的批评超越了这一点，它提出了可以改进研究或写作的方法。
… being against is not enough. We also need to develop habits of constructive thinking.
…反对是不够的。我们还需要养成建设性思维的习惯。
Edward de Bono 爱德华·德·波诺
Highlighting inadequacies of previous studies
强调先前研究的不足
Previous studies of X have not dealt with …
以前对 X 的研究没有涉及......
Researchers have not treated X in much detail.
研究人员尚未详细处理 X。
Such expositions are unsatisfactory because they …
这样的阐述并不令人满意，因为它们......
Most studies in the field of X have only focused on …
X 领域的大多数研究只集中在......
Such approaches, however, have failed to address …
然而，这些方法未能解决......
Previous published studies are limited to local surveys.
以前发表的研究仅限于本地调查。
Half of the studies evaluated failed to specify whether …
评估的研究中有一半未能说明是否......
The research to date has tended to focus on X rather than
迄今为止的研究往往集中在 X 而不是
published studies on the effect of X are not consistent.
已发表的关于 X 影响的研究并不一致。
Smith’s analysis does not take account of …, nor does she examine …
史密斯的分析没有考虑到......，她也没有研究......
The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between X and Y.
现有的账户无法解决 X 和 Y 之间的矛盾。
Most studies of X have only been carried out in a small number of areas.
大多数 X 研究仅在少数领域进行。
However, much of the research up to now has been descriptive in nature …
然而，到目前为止的大部分研究本质上都是描述性的......
The generalisability of much published research on this issue is problematic.
关于这个问题的许多已发表研究的普遍性是有问题的。
Research on the subject has been mostly restricted to limited comparisons of …
关于该主题的研究主要限于有限的比较......
However, few writers have been able to draw on any systematic research into …
然而，很少有作家能够利用任何系统的研究来研究......
Short-term studies such as these do not necessarily show subtle changes over time …
诸如此类的短期研究不一定会随着时间的推移而发生细微的变化......
Although extensive research has been carried out on X, no single study exists which …
尽管已经对 X 进行了广泛的研究，但没有一项研究存在......
However, these results were based upon data from over 30 years ago and it is unclear if …
然而，这些结果是基于 30 多年前的数据，目前尚不清楚是否......
The experimental data are rather controversial, and there is no general agreement about …
实验数据相当有争议，并且没有普遍的共识......
Identifying a weakness in a single study or paper
识别单个研究或论文中的弱点
| (However,) （但是，） | Smith fails to fully define what … 史密斯未能完全定义什么...... Jones fails to acknowledge the significance of … 琼斯没有承认...... the author overlooks the fact that X contributes to Y. 作者忽略了 X 对 Y 有贡献的事实。 what Smith fails to do is to draw a distinction between … 斯密没有做的是区分...... the paper would appear to be over-ambitious in its claims. 该报的主张似乎过于雄心勃勃。 another weakness is that we are given no explanation of how … 另一个弱点是，我们没有得到解释如何...... no attempt was made to quantify the association between X and Y. 没有尝试量化 X 和 Y 之间的关联。 the main weakness of the study is the failure to address how … 该研究的主要弱点是未能解决如何...... the study fails to consider the differing categories of damage that … 该研究没有考虑不同类别的损害...... the research does not take into account pre-existing … such as … 该研究没有考虑到预先存在的......如。。。 the author offers no explanation for the distinction between X and Y. 作者没有对 X 和 Y 之间的区别提供解释。 Smith makes no attempt to differentiate between different types of X. 史密斯没有试图区分不同类型的 X。 |
| Smith 史密斯 The paper 论文 The book 这本书 | fails to 未能 does not 不 makes no attempt to 不尝试 | specify … 指定。。。 quantify … 量化。。。 compare … 比较。。。 separate … 分开。。。 account for … account for ... suggest why … 请说明原因 ... analyse how … 分析如何... ascertain whether … 确定是否...... distinguish between … 区分。。。 explain the meaning of … 解释 ... provide information on … 提供有关... address the question of … 解决 ... assess the effectiveness of … 评估 ... use a standardised method of … 使用标准化的 ... give sufficient consideration to … 充分考虑...... consider the long term impact of … 考虑一下 ... offer an adequate explanation for … 为... engage with current discourses on … 参与当前的讨论...... determine the underlying causes of … 确定 ... systematically review all the relevant literature. 系统地回顾所有相关文献。 |
Offering constructive suggestions
提供建设性建议
The study would have been more interesting if it had included …
如果这项研究包括......
These studies would have been more useful if they had focused on …
如果这些研究专注于......
The study would have been more relevant if the researchers had asked …
如果研究人员问......
The questionnaire would have been more useful if it had asked participants about …
如果问卷询问参与者关于......
The research would have been more relevant if a wider range of X had been explored
如果探索了更广泛的 X 范围，这项研究将更具相关性
| The study 研究 The findings 研究结果 Smith’s paper 史密斯的论文 Her conclusions 她的结论 | would have been 本来是 break 破 might have been 可能是 | more 更多 break 破 far more 远不止于此 break 破 much more 多 | useful 有用 original 源语言 relevant 相关 convincing 有说服力的 interesting 有趣 persuasive 有说服力的 | if he/she had 如果他/她有 break 破 if the author had 如果作者有 | used … 使用。。。 adopted … 采用。。。 assessed … 评估。。。 included … 包括。。。 addressed … 解决。。。 considered … 考虑。。。 |
Introducing problems and limitations: theory or argument
引入问题和限制：理论或论证
Smith’s argument relies too heavily on …
史密斯的论点过于依赖......
The main weakness with this theory is that …
这个理论的主要弱点是......
The key problem with this explanation is that …
这种解释的关键问题是......
However, this theory does not fully explain why …
然而，这个理论并不能完全解释为什么......
One criticism of much of the literature on X is that …
对 X 的大部分文献的一个批评是......
Critics question the ability of the X theory to provide …
批评者质疑 X 理论提供......
However, there is an inconsistency with this argument.
然而，这个论点存在不一致之处。
A serious weakness with this argument, however, is that …
然而，这个论点的一个严重弱点是......
However, such explanations tend to overlook the fact that …
然而，这样的解释往往忽略了这样一个事实，即......
One of the main difficulties with this line of reasoning is that …
这种推理方式的主要困难之一是......
Smith’s interpretation overlooks much of the historical research …
史密斯的解释忽略了许多历史研究......
Many writers have challenged Smith’s claim on the grounds that …
许多作家对史密斯的说法提出了质疑，理由是......
The X theory has been criticised for being based on weak evidence.
X 理论因证据薄弱而受到批评。
A final criticism of the theory of X is that it struggles to explain some aspects of …
对 X 理论的最后一个批评是，它难以解释......
| The theory is unable to 该理论无法 | predict … 预测。。。 explain why … 请解释原因 ... fully account for … 完全考虑 ... adequately explain the … 充分解释 ... explain what happens when … 解释当... make any useful prediction about … 对 ... explain the differences observed when … 解释在... provide a comprehensive explanation for … 提供全面的解释... |
Introducing problems and limitations: method or practice
介绍问题和限制：方法或实践
The limitation of this approach is that …
这种方法的局限性在于......
A major problem with the X method is that …
X 方法的一个主要问题是......
One major drawback of this approach is that …
这种方法的一个主要缺点是......
A criticism of this experimental design is that …
对这种实验设计的批评是......
The main limitation of this technique, however, is …
然而，这种技术的主要局限性是......
Selection bias is another potential concern because …
选择偏差是另一个潜在的问题，因为......
Perhaps the most serious disadvantage of this method is that …
也许这种方法最严重的缺点是......
In recent years, however, this approach has been challenged by …
然而，近年来，这种方法受到了 ...
Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies.
非政府机构也对新政策持非常批评的态度。
All the studies reviewed so far, however, suffer from the fact that …
然而，迄今为止回顾的所有研究都受到这样一个事实的影响......
Critics of laboratory-based experiments contend that such studies …
实验室实验的批评者认为，此类研究......
There are certain problems with the use of focus groups. One of these is that there is less …
使用焦点小组存在某些问题。其中之一是 ...
| However, 然而 | this method of analysis has a number of limitations. 这种分析方法有许多局限性。 this method does involve potential measurement error. 此方法确实涉及潜在的测量误差。 there are limits to how far the idea of/concept of X can be taken. X 的概念/概念可以走多远是有限的。 one of the problems with the instrument used to measure X was … 用于测量 X 的仪器的问题之一是...... approaches of this kind carry with them various well known limitations. 这种方法带有各种众所周知的局限性。 |
| However, all the previously mentioned methods suffer from some serious 但是，前面提到的所有方法都存在一些严重的问题 | drawbacks. 缺点。 limitations. 局限性。 weaknesses. 弱点。 shortcomings. 缺点。 disadvantages. 弊。 |
Using evaluative adjectives to comment on research
使用评价形容词来评论研究
| In her 在她 In their 在他们的 In this 在这个 | useful 有用 timely 及时 seminal detailed 详细 thorough 彻底 excellent 非常好 influential 有影响 important 重要 innovative 创新 pioneering 开拓 impressive 令人 印象 深刻 wide-ranging 范围广泛 comprehensive 全面 ground-breaking 开拓性的 | study (of X), 研究 （的 X）， survey (of X), 调查 （的 X）， analysis (of X), 分析（的 X）、 examination (of X), 检查（X 的）， investigation (into X), 调查（到 X）、 | Smith (2012) showed that … Smith （2012） 表明...... Jones (2013) concluded that … |
Introducing general criticism
引入一般性批评
Critics question the ability of poststructuralist theory to provide …
批评者质疑后结构主义理论提供......
Non-government agencies are also very critical of the new policies.
非政府机构也对新政策持非常批评的态度。
Smith’s meta-analysis has been subjected to considerable criticism.
史密斯的荟萃分析受到了相当大的批评。
The most important of these criticisms is that Smith failed to note that …
这些批评中最重要的是，史密斯没有注意到......
The X theory has been vigorously challenged in recent years by a number of writers.
近年来，X 理论受到了许多作家的强烈挑战。
These claims have been strongly contested in recent years by a number of writers.
近年来，这些说法受到了许多作家的强烈质疑。
More recent arguments against X have been summarised by Smith and Jones (1982):
Smith 和 Jones （1982） 总结了最近反对 X 的论点：
Critics have also argued that not only do surveys provide an inaccurate measure of X, but the …
批评者还认为，不仅调查提供了不准确的 X 测量方法，而且......
Many analysts now argue that the strategy of X has not been successful. Jones (2003), for example, argues that …
许多分析家现在认为 X 的策略并不成功。例如，Jones （2003） 认为......
Introducing the critical stance of particular writers
介绍特定作家的批评立场
Smith (2014) disputes this account of …
Smith （2014） 对这种说法提出了异议......
Jones (2003) has also questioned why …
Jones （2003） 也质疑为什么......
However, Jones (2015) points out that …
然而，Jones （2015） 指出......
The author challenges the widely held view that …
作者挑战了人们普遍持有的观点，即......
Smith (1999) takes issue with the contention that …
Smith （1999） 对 ...
The idea that … was first challenged by Smith (1992).
这个想法......首次受到 Smith （1992） 的挑战。
Smith is critical of the tendency to compartmentalise X.
史密斯对划分 X 的倾向持批评态度。
However, Smith (1967) questioned this hypothesis and …
然而，Smith （1967） 对这个假设提出了质疑，并且......
Jones (2003) has challenged some of Smith’s conclusions, arguing that …
Jones （2003） 对 Smith 的一些结论提出了质疑，认为......
Another major criticism of Smith’s study, made by Jones (2003), is that …
Jones （2003） 对 Smith 研究的另一个主要批评是......
Jones (2003) is probably the best-known critic of the X theory. He argues that …
Jones （2003） 可能是 X 理论最著名的批评者。他认为......
In her discussion of X, Smith further criticises the ways in which some authors …
在她对 X 的讨论中，史密斯进一步批评了一些作者......
Smith’s decision to reject the classical explanation of X merits some discussion …
史密斯拒绝 X 的经典解释的决定值得一些讨论......
In a recent article in Academic Journal, Smith (2014) questions the extent to which …
在最近发表在《学术期刊》上的一篇文章中，Smith （2014） 质疑......
The latter point has been devastatingly critiqued by Jones (2003), who argues that …
后一点遭到了 Jones （2003） 的毁灭性批评，他认为......
A recently published article by Smith et al. (2011) casts doubt on Jones’ assumption that …
Smith et al. （2011） 最近发表的一篇文章对 Jones 的假设提出了质疑，即......
Other authors (see Smith, 2012; Jones, 2014) question the usefulness of such an approach.
其他作者（参见 Smith，2012 年;Jones，2014 年）质疑这种方法的有用性。
| Smith (2020) 史密斯 （2020） | criticises … 批评。。。 questions … 问题。。。 challenges … 挑战。。。 is critical of … 批评...... casts doubt on … 对 ... points out that … 指出...... takes issue with… 对... raises a number of questions about … 提出了一些关于...... |
When we classify things, we group and name them on the basis of something that they have in common. By doing this we can understand certain qualities and features which they share as a class. Classifying is also a way of understanding differences between things. In writing, classifying is often used as a way of introducing a reader to a new topic. Along with writing definitions, the function of classification may be used in the early part of an essay, or longer piece of writing. We list things when we want to treat and present a series of items or different pieces of information systematically. The order of a list may indicate rank importance.
当我们对事物进行分类时，我们会根据它们的共同点对它们进行分组和命名。通过这样做，我们可以理解他们作为一个类共享的某些品质和特征。分类也是理解事物之间差异的一种方式。在写作中，分类通常被用作向读者介绍新主题的一种方式。除了写作定义，分类的功能还可用于论文的早期部分或较长的文章。当我们想系统地处理和呈现一系列项目或不同的信息时，我们会列出事物。列表的顺序可能指示排名重要性。
Classifying a topic 对主题进行分类
X can be classified into Xi and Xii.
X 可分为 习 和 XII。
X can be categorised into Xi, Xii and Xiii.
X 可分为 习、XII 和 XIII。
Several taxonomies for X have been developed …
已经开发了 X 的几个分类法......
Different methods have been proposed to classify …
已经提出了不同的方法来对 ...
X may be divided into several groups: a) …, b) … or c) …
X 可分为几组： a） ...， b） ...或 c） ......
Generally, X provides two types of information: Xi and Xii.
通常，X 提供两种类型的信息：习 和 xii。
It has become commonplace to distinguish ‘Xi’ from ‘Xii’ forms of X.
区分 X 的“习”和“xii”形式已经变得司空见惯。
X is generally classified into two types: Xi, also known as …, and Xii or …
X 通常分为两种类型：习，也称为...，以及 XII 或 ...
There are two basic approaches currently being adopted in research into X. One is …
目前在 X 研究中采用两种基本方法。一个是......
The theory distinguishes two different types of X, i.e. social X and semantic X (Smith, 2013).
该理论区分了两种不同类型的 X，即社会 X 和语义 X（Smith，2013）。
The works of Smith fall under three headings: (1) dialogues and …, (2) collections of facts, and …
史密斯的作品分为三个标题：（1） 对话和......，（2） 事实集，以及......
| X may be divided into X 可分为 | three main 三大 | classes. 类。 sub-groups. 子组。 categories. 类别。 |
| X may be classified X 可分类 | on the basis of 在 according to 根据 depending on 根据 in terms of 在 | Y | into Xi and Xii. 分为 习 和 XII。 |
Describing a specific system of classification
描述特定的分类系统
Smith (2015) draws a distinction between …
Smith （2015） 区分了......
Smith (2006) categorised X as being a) …, b) …, or c) …
Smith （2006） 将 X 分类为 a） ...、b） ...， 或 c） ...
Smith’s (1980) typology of X is the one most widely–used.
Smith （1980） 的 X 类型学是使用最广泛的一种。
Jones (1987) distinguishes between systems that are a) …, b) …, or c) …
Jones （1987） 区分了 a） ...、b） ...， 或 c） ...
A third method, proposed by Smith et al. (2010), bases the classification on a …
第三种方法由 Smith 等人 （2010） 提出，将分类基于 ...
To better understand X, Smith et al. (2011) classified Y into three distinct types using …
为了更好地理解 X，Smith 等人 （2011） 使用 ...
For Smith, X is of four kinds: (1) X which …; (2) X which …; (3) X which …; and (4) X which…
对斯密来说，X 有四种类型：（1） X 哪个 ...;（2） X 哪个 ...;（3） X 哪个 ...;（4） X 其中......
In Jones’s system, individuals were classified as belonging to upper or lower categories of …
在琼斯的系统中，个体被归类为属于 ...
Smith’s Taxonomy is a classification system used to define and distinguish different levels of …
史密斯分类法是一种分类系统，用于定义和区分不同级别的 ...
Smith and Jones (2003) argue that there are two broad categories of Y, which are: a) …, and b) …
Smith 和 Jones （2003） 认为 Y 有两大类，它们是：a） ...， 和 b） ...
| In the traditional system, X is graded 在传统系统中，X 是分级的 | in terms of … 就 ... on the basis of … 在 ... according to whether … 根据是否... |
| Smith (1966) 史密斯 （1966） | divided 划分 classified 机要 grouped 分组 | Xs | into two broad types: Xi’s and Xii’s. 分为两大类：习 和 XII。 |
| Smith (2015) describes Smith （2015） 描述 | four basic kinds of validity: 四种基本效度： | logical, content, criterion and construct. 逻辑、内容、标准和结构。 |
Commenting on a system of classification
对分类系统进行注释
| This system of classification 此分类系统 | includes … 包括。。。 is misleading. 具有误导性。 |
Introducing lists 列表简介
This topic can best be treated under three headings: X, Y and Z.
这个主题最好用三个标题来处理：X、Y 和 Z。
The key aspects of management can be listed as follows: X, Y and Z.
管理的关键方面可以列出如下：X、Y 和 Z。
There are three reasons why the English language has become so dominant. These are:
英语变得如此主导的原因有三个。这些是：
There are two types of effect which result when a patient undergoes X. These are …
当患者接受 X 时，会产生两种类型的效果。这些是......
The disadvantages of the new approach can be discussed under three headings, which are: …
新方法的缺点可以在三个标题下进行讨论，它们是： ......
The Three Voices for Mass is divided into six sections. These are: the Kyrie, Gloria, ….
弥撒的三种声音分为六个部分。他们是：Kyrie、Gloria......
Appetitive stimuli have three separable basic functions. Firstly, they … Secondly, they …
食欲刺激具有三个可分离的基本功能。首先，他们......其次，他们 ...
During his tour of Britain, he visited the following industrial centres: Manchester, Leeds, and …
在英国之行期间，他参观了以下工业中心：曼彻斯特、利兹和......
This section has been included for several reasons: it is …; it illustrates …; and it describes…
包含此部分有几个原因：它是 ...;它说明了......;它描述了......
The Mass for Four Voices consists of five movements, which are: the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus and Agnus Dei.
四声部弥撒由五个乐章组成，分别是：Kyrie、Gloria、Credo、Sanctus 和 Agnus Dei。
Referring to other people's lists
引用其他人的列表
Smith and Jones (1991) list X, Y and Z as the major causes of infant mortality.
Smith 和 Jones （1991） 将 X、Y 和 Z 列为婴儿死亡的主要原因。
Smith (2003) lists the main features of X as follows: it is X; it is Y; and it has Z.
Smith （2003） 列出了 X 的主要特征如下：它是 X;它是 Y;它有 Z。
Smith (2003) argues that there are two broad categories of Y, which are: a) … and b) …
Smith （2003） 认为 Y 有两大类，它们是： a） ......b） ......
For Aristotle, motion is of four kinds: (1) motion which …; (2) motion which …; (3) motion …
对于亚里士多德来说，运动有四种类型：（1） 运动 ...;（2） 运动 ...;（3） 动议 ...
Smith (2003) suggests three conditions for X. Firstly, X should be … Secondly, it needs to be …
Smith （2003） 为 X 提出了三个条件。首先，X 应该是......其次，它需要......
Compare and contrast 比较和对比
By understanding similarities and differences between two things, we can increase our understanding and learn more about both. This usually involves a process of analysis, in which we compare the specific parts as well as the whole. Comparison may also be a preliminary stage of evaluation. For example, by comparing specific aspects of A and B, we can decide which is more useful or valuable. Many paragraphs whose function is to compare or contrast will begin with an introductory sentence expressed in general terms.
通过了解两件事之间的相似之处和不同之处，我们可以增加我们的理解并更多地了解两者。这通常涉及一个分析过程，在这个过程中，我们比较特定部分和整体。比较也可能是评估的初步阶段。例如，通过比较 A 和 B 的特定方面，我们可以决定哪个更有用或更有价值。许多功能是比较或对比的段落将以一般术语表达的介绍性句子开头。
Introducing differences 引入差异
X is different from Y in a number of respects.
X 在许多方面与 Y 不同。
X differs from Y in a number of important ways.
X 在许多重要方面与 Y 不同。
There are a number of important differences between X and Y.
X 和 Y 之间存在许多重要差异。
Areas where significant differences have been found include X and Y.
已发现显著差异的区域包括 X 和 Y。
In contrast to earlier findings, however, no evidence of X was detected.
然而，与早期的发现相反，没有检测到 X 的证据。
A descriptive case study differs from an exploratory study in that it uses …
描述性案例研究与探索性研究的不同之处在于它使用......
Smith (2015) found dramatic differences in the rate of decline of X between Y and Z.
Smith （2015） 发现 Y 和 Z 之间 X 的下降速度存在巨大差异。
Women and men differ not only in physical attributes but also in the way in which they …
女性和男性不仅在身体特征上有所不同，而且在他们......
The nervous systems of Xs are significantly different from those of Ys in several key respects.
X 的神经系统在几个关键方面与 Y 的神经系统有很大不同。
| Smith (2015) 史密斯 （2015） | found 发现 observed 观察 | clear 清楚 minor 次要 major 主要 notable 显著的 distinct 不同 only slight 仅轻微 significant 重要 considerable 相当 | differences between X and Y. X 和 Y 之间的差异。 |
Introducing similarities 介绍相似之处
Both X and Y share a number of key features.
X 和 Y 都具有许多关键特征。
There are a number of similarities between X and Y.
X 和 Y 之间有许多相似之处。
The effects of X on human health are similar to those of Y.
X 对人类健康的影响与 Y 相似。
Both X and Y generally take place in a ‘safe environment’.
X 和 Y 通常都在“安全环境”中进行。
These results are similar to those reported by (Smith et al. 1999).
这些结果与 （Smith et al. 1999） 报告的结果相似。
This definition is similar to that found in (Smith, 2001) who writes:
这个定义类似于 （Smith， 2001） 中发现的定义，他写道：
The return rate is similar to that of comparable studies (e.g. Smith et al. 1999).
返回率与同类研究相似（例如 Smith et al. 1999）。
The approach used in this investigation is similar to that used by other researchers.
本调查中使用的方法与其他研究人员使用的方法相似。
Studies have compared Xs in humans and animals and found that they are essentially identical.
研究比较了人类和动物的 X，发现它们本质上是相同的。
| The mode of processing used by the right brain 右脑使用的处理模式 | is similar to that 与此类似 is comparable to that 与此相当 is comparable in complexity to that 的复杂程度与该 | used by the left brain. 由左脑使用。 |
Comparing within one sentence
在一句话内进行比较
| Oral societies tend to be more concerned with the present 口述社团往往更关心当下 | whereas while 而 while | literate societies have a very definite awareness of the past. 有文化的社会对过去有非常明确的认识。 |
| Whereas While 鉴于 While | oral societies tend to be more concerned with the present, 口头社团往往更关心当下， | literate societies have a very definite awareness of the past. 有文化的社会对过去有非常明确的认识。 |
| This interpretation 这种解释 | differs from that 与那不同 contrasts with that 与此形成鲜明对比 is different from that 与那不同 | of Smith and Jones (2004) who argue that …. Smith 和 Jones （2004） 认为...... |
| In contrast to oral communities, 与口述社区相比， | it is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies. 在有文化的社会中，要摆脱日历时间是非常困难的。 |
| Compared with people in oral cultures, 与口述文化中的人相比， | people in literate cultures organise their lives around clocks and calendars. 在有文化的文化中，人们围绕着时钟和日历来安排他们的生活。 |
Comparing within one sentence: comparative forms
一句话内比较：比较形式
In the trial, women made more/fewer errors than men.
在试验中，女性犯的错误比男性多/少。
Women tend to have greater/less verbal fluency than men.
女性的言语流利程度往往比男性高/低。
Women are more/less likely than men to perform well in tests.
女性在测试中表现良好的可能性比男性多/小。
Women are more/less accurate in tests of target-directed motor skills.
女性在目标导向运动技能测试中的准确性或多/低。
Women tend to perform better/worse than men on tests of perceptual speed.
女性在感知速度测试中往往比男性表现得更好/更差。
Women are faster/slower than men at certain precision manual tasks, such as …
在某些精确的体力劳动中，女性比男性更快/更慢，例如......
Women are more/less likely to suffer from X when the front part of the brain is damaged.
当大脑的前部受损时，女性或多/少患 X 的可能性。
The part of the brain connecting the two hemispheres may be more/less extensive in women.
在女性中，连接两个半球的大脑部分可能或多/少广泛。
Indicating difference across two sentences
指示两个句子之间的差异
| It is very difficult to get away from calendar time in literate societies. 在有文化的社会中，要摆脱日历时间是非常困难的。 | By contrast, 相比之下， In contrast, 相比之下， On the other hand, 另一方面 | many people in oral communities have little idea of the calendar year of their birth. 口述社区中的许多人对他们出生的日历年知之甚少。 |
Indicating similarity across two sentences
表示两个句子的相似性
| Young children learning their first language need simplified input. 学习第一语言的幼儿需要简化输入。 | Similarly, 同样地 Likewise, 同样 In the same way, 同样， | low level adult learners need graded input supplied in most cases by a teacher. 在大多数情况下，低水平成人学习者需要教师提供的分级输入。 |
| Smith (2015) sees X as … Smith （2015） 将 X 视为...... Smith (2015) argues that … | Similarly, 同样地 Likewise, 同样 In the same way, 同样， | Jones (2019) asserts that … Jones （2019） 断言...... Jones (2019) holds the view that … |
Defining terms 定义术语
In academic work students are often expected to give definitions of key words and phrases in order to demonstrate to their tutors that they understand these terms clearly. More generally, however, academic writers define terms so that their readers understand exactly what is meant when certain key terms are used. When important words are not clearly understood misinterpretation may result. In fact, many disagreements (academic, legal, diplomatic, personal) arise as a result of different interpretations of the same term. In academic writing, teachers and their students often have to explore these differing interpretations before moving on to study a topic.
在学术工作中，学生通常需要给出关键词和短语的定义，以便向他们的导师证明他们清楚地理解这些术语。然而，更一般地说，学术作家定义术语是为了让读者准确理解使用某些关键术语时的含义。当重要的词语没有被清楚地理解时，可能会导致误解。事实上，许多分歧（学术、法律、外交、个人）是由于对同一术语的不同解释而产生的。在学术写作中，教师和他们的学生在继续学习一个主题之前，往往必须探索这些不同的解释。
Introductory phrases 介绍性短语
The term ‘X’ was first used by …
术语“X”最初由 ...
The term ‘X’ can be traced back to …
“X”一词可以追溯到......
Previous studies mostly defined X as …
以前的研究大多将 X 定义为......
The term ‘X’ was introduced by Smith in her …
“X”一词是史密斯在她的 ...
Historically, the term ‘X’ has been used to describe …
从历史上看，术语“X”被用来描述......
It is necessary here to clarify exactly what is meant by …
这里有必要澄清一下......
This shows a need to be explicit about exactly what is meant by the word ‘X’.
这表明需要明确 “X” 这个词的确切含义。
Simple three-part definitions
简单的三部分定义
| A university is 大学是 | an institution 机构 | where knowledge is produced and passed on to others 在这里，知识被生产并传递给他人 |
| Social Economics may be defined as 社会经济学可以定义为 | the branch of economics 经济学分支 | [which is] concerned with the measurement, causes, and consequences of social problems. [它] 关注社会问题的衡量、原因和后果。 |
| Research may be defined as 研究可以定义为 | a systematic process 系统化的过程 | which consists of three elements or components: (1) a question, problem, or hypothesis, (2) data, and (3) analysis and interpretation of data. 它由三个要素或组成部分组成：（1） 问题、问题或假设，（2） 数据，以及 （3） 数据的分析和解释。 |
| Braille is 盲文是 | a system 一个系统 | of touch reading and writing for blind people in which raised dots on paper represent the letters of the alphabet. 盲人的触摸阅读和写作，其中纸上凸起的点代表字母表中的字母。 |
General meanings or application of meanings
一般含义或含义的应用
X can broadly be defined as …
X 可以广义地定义为......
X can be loosely described as …
X 可以粗略地描述为 ...
X can be defined as … It encompasses …
X 可以定义为 ... 它包括......
In the literature, the term tends to be used to refer to …
在文献中，该术语往往用于指代......
In broad terms, X can be defined as any stimulus that is …
从广义上讲，X 可以定义为任何刺激......
Whereas X refers to the operations of …, Y refers to the …
X 是指 ...，而 Y 是指 ...
The broad use of the term ‘X’ is sometimes equated with …
术语“X”的广泛使用有时等同于......
The term ‘disease’ refers to a biological event characterised by …
术语“疾病”是指以......
Defined as …, X is now considered a worldwide problem and is associated with …
定义为 ...，X 现在被认为是一个世界性问题，并与 ...
| The term ‘X’ 术语“X” | refers to … 指 ... encompasses A), B), and C). 包括 A）、B） 和 C）。 has come to be used to refer to … 已经开始被用来指代...... is generally understood to mean … 通常理解为...... has been used to refer to situations in which … 已用于指代 ... carries certain connotations in some types of … 在某些类型的 ... is a relatively new name for a Y, commonly referred to as … 是 Y 的一个相对较新的名称，通常称为 ... |
Indicating varying definitions
指示不同的定义
The definition of X has evolved.
X 的定义已经发生了变化。
There are multiple definitions of X.
X 有多种定义。
Several definitions of X have been proposed.
已经提出了 X 的几种定义。
In the field of X, various definitions of X are found.
在 X 领域，可以找到 X 的各种定义。
The term ‘X’ embodies a multitude of concepts which …
“X”一词包含许多概念，这些概念......
This term has two overlapping, even slightly confusing meanings.
这个术语有两个重叠的、甚至有点令人困惑的含义。
Widely varying definitions of X have emerged (Smith and Jones, 1999).
X 的定义差异很大（Smith 和 Jones，1999 年）。
Despite its common usage, X is used in different disciplines to mean different things.
尽管 X 的用法很常见，但它在不同的学科中用于表示不同的事物。
Since the definition of X varies among researchers, it is important to clarify how the term is …
由于 X 的定义因研究人员而异，因此澄清该术语是如何定义的非常重要......
| The meaning of this term 该术语的含义 | has evolved. 已经发展了。 has varied over time. 随时间而变化。 has been extended to refer to … 已扩展为指代 ... has been broadened in recent years. 近年来得到了拓宽。 has not been consistent throughout … 在整个过程中并不一致...... has changed somewhat from its original definition … 与最初的定义有些不同...... |
Indicating difficulties in defining a term
表示定义术语的困难
X is a contested term.
X 是一个有争议的术语。
X is a rather nebulous term …
X 是一个相当模糊的术语......
X is challenging to define because …
X 很难定义，因为......
A precise definition of X has proved elusive.
事实证明，X 的精确定义难以捉摸。
A generally accepted definition of X is lacking.
缺乏一个普遍接受的 X 定义。
Unfortunately, X remains a poorly defined term.
不幸的是，X 仍然是一个定义不明确的术语。
There is no agreed definition on what constitutes …
关于什么构成......
There is little consensus about what X actually means.
关于 X 的实际含义几乎没有共识。
There is a degree of uncertainty around the terminology in …
...
These terms are often used interchangeably and without precision.
这些术语经常互换使用，而且没有精确性。
Numerous terms are used to describe X, the most common of which are ….
许多术语用于描述 X，其中最常见的是 ....
The definition of X varies in the literature and there is terminological confusion.
X 的定义在文献中各不相同，并且存在术语混淆。
Smith (2001) identified four abilities that might be subsumed under the term ‘X’: a) …
Smith （2001） 确定了四种可能归入“X”一词的能力：a） ......
‘X’ is a term frequently used in the literature, but to date there is no consensus about …
“X”是文献中经常使用的术语，但迄今为止还没有就......
X is a commonly-used notion in psychology and yet it is a concept difficult to define precisely.
X 是心理学中常用的概念，但这是一个难以精确定义的概念。
Although differences of opinion still exist, there appears to be some agreement that X refers to …
尽管意见分歧仍然存在，但似乎有一些共识 X 指的是......
| The meaning of this term 该术语的含义 | has been disputed. 一直存在争议。 has been debated ever since … 从那时起就一直在争论...... has proved to be notoriously hard to define. 事实证明，这是出了名的难以定义。 has been an object of major disagreement in … 一直是重大分歧的对象...... has been a matter of ongoing discussion among … 一直是 ... |
Specifying terms that are used in an essay or thesis
指定论文或论文中使用的术语
The term ‘X’ is used here to refer to …
术语“X”在这里用于指代......
In the present study, X is defined as …
在本研究中，X 被定义为......
The term ‘X’ will be used solely when referring to …
术语“X”将仅用于指代......
In this essay, the term ‘X’ will be used in its broadest sense to refer to all …
在本文中，术语“X”将在其最广泛的意义上用于指代所有......
In this paper, the term that will be used to describe this phenomenon is ‘X’.
在本文中，将用于描述这种现象的术语是“X”。
In this dissertation, the terms ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are used interchangeably to mean …
在这篇论文中，术语“X”和“Y”可以互换使用，表示......
Throughout this thesis, the term ‘X’ is used to refer to informal systems as well as …
在这篇论文中，术语 “X” 用于指代非正式系统以及......
While a variety of definitions of the term ‘X’ have been suggested, this paper will use the definition first suggested by Smith (1968) who saw it as …
虽然已经提出了对术语“X”的各种定义，但本文将使用 Smith （1968） 首先提出的定义，他将其视为......
Referring to people’s definitions: author prominent
参考人们的定义：作者突出
For Smith (2001), X means …
对于 Smith （2001） 来说，X 意味着......
Smith (2001) uses the term ‘X’ to refer to …
Smith （2001） 使用术语“X”来指代......
Smith (1954) was apparently the first to use the term …
Smith （1954） 显然是第一个使用这个词的人......
In 1987, psychologist John Smith popularized the term ‘X’ to describe …
1987 年，心理学家约翰·史密斯 （John Smith） 普及了“X”一词来描述......
According to a definition provided by Smith (2001:23), X is ‘the maximally …
根据 Smith （2001：23） 提供的定义，X 是“最大......
This definition is close to those of Smith (2012) and Jones (2013) who define X as …
这个定义与 Smith （2012） 和 Jones （2013） 的定义很接近，他们将 X 定义为......
Smith, has shown that, as late as 1920, Jones was using the term ‘X’ to refer to particular …
Smith 已经表明，直到 1920 年，琼斯还在使用“X”一词来指代特定的......
One of the first people to define nursing was Florence Nightingale (1860), who wrote: ‘… …’
最早定义护理的人之一是弗洛伦斯·南丁格尔（Florence Nightingale，1860 年），他写道：“......
Chomsky writes that a grammar is a ‘device of some sort for producing the ….’ (1957, p.11).
乔姆斯基写道，语法是“产生 ....（1957 年，第 11 页）。
Aristotle defines the imagination as ‘the movement which results upon an actual sensation.’
亚里士多德将想象力定义为“产生实际感觉的运动”。
Smith et al. (2002) have provided a new definition of health: ‘health is a state of being with …
Smith 等人。（2002 年）对健康提出了一个新的定义：“健康是一种与......
Referring to people’s definitions: author non-prominent
参考人们的定义：作者非突出
X is defined by Smith (2003: 119) as ‘… …’
Smith （2003： 119） 将 X 定义为“......
The term ‘X’ is used by Smith (2001) to refer to …
Smith （2001） 使用术语“X”来指代......
X is, for Smith (2012), the situation which occurs when …
对于 Smith （2012） 来说，X 是当......
A further definition of X is given by Smith (1982) who describes …
Smith （1982） 给出了 X 的进一步定义，他描述了......
The term ‘X’ is used by Aristotle in four overlapping senses. First, it is the underlying …
亚里士多德以四种重叠的含义使用“X”一词。首先，它是底层的......
X is the degree to which an assessment process or device measures … (Smith et al., 1986).
X 是评估过程或设备测量的程度......（Smith 等人，1986 年）。
Commenting on a definition
对定义进行注释
| This definition 此定义 | includes … 包括。。。 allows for … 允许 ... highlights the … 突出显示 ... helps distinguish … 有助于区分 ... takes into account … 考虑到...... poses a problem for … 对 ... will continue to evolve. 将继续发展。 can vary depending on … 可能因 ... was agreed upon after … 是在...... has been broadened to include … 已扩大到包括...... |
| The following definition is 以下定义是 | intended to … 旨在...... modelled on … 以 ... too simplistic: 太简单了： useful because … 有用，因为 ... problematic as … 有问题的...... inadequate since … 不足，因为...... in need of revision since … 需要修订，因为...... important for what it excludes. 对于它排除的内容很重要。 the most precise produced so far. 迄今为止生产的最精确。 |
Describing trends 描述趋势
A trend is the general direction in which something is developing or changing over time. A projection is a prediction of future change. Trends and projections are usually illustrated using line graphs in which the horizontal axis represents time. Some of the language commonly used for writing about trends and projections is given below.
趋势是某事物随时间发展或变化的总体方向。预测是对未来变化的预测。趋势和预测通常使用折线图来说明，其中横轴表示时间。下面给出了一些通常用于撰写趋势和预测的语言。
Describing trends 描述趋势
| The graph shows that there has been a 该图显示，已经存在 Figure 2 reveals that there has been a 图 2 显示，已经存在 | slight 轻微 steep 陡 sharp 锋利 steady 稳定 gradual 逐渐 marked 标记 | fall 秋天 rise 上升 drop 落 decline 下降 increase 增加 decrease 减少 | in the number of … 在数量上...... |
Highlighting a trend in a table or chart
在表格或图表中突出显示趋势
| What is striking 什么是引人注目的 What stands out 突出之处 What is interesting 有趣的地方 What can be clearly seen 可以清楚地看到什么 | in this 在这个 | table 桌子 chart 图表 figure 数字 | is the growth of … 是 ... is the high rate of … 是高率...... is the variability of … 是 ... is the dominance of … 是 ... is the rapid decrease in … 是 ... is the steady decline of … 是稳步下降...... is the general pattern of … 是 ... is the dramatic decline in … 是 ... is the continual growth of … 是 ... is the difference between … 是 ... is the phenomenal growth of … 是 ... |
Describing high and low points in figures
用数字描述高点和低点
Production of X peaked in 1985.
X 的产量在 1985 年达到顶峰。
X rose to a high point and peaked in …
X 上升到一个高点并在 ...
The peak age for committing a crime is 18.
犯罪的高峰年龄是 18 岁。
The number of Xs reached a peak during …
X 的数量在 ...
Production of X reached a low point in 1990.
X 的产量在 1990 年达到低点。
The rate fell to a low point of $5.00 at the end of the year.
年底，该汇率跌至 5.00 美元的低点。
Projecting trends 预测趋势
| The rate of X X 的速率 The amount of X X 的数量 The number of Xs X 的数量 | is likely to 可能会 will probably 可能会 is expected to 预计 is projected to 预计为 | fall 秋天 | after 2035. 2035 年之后。 |
Describing quantities 描述数量
The language for writing about quantities can be a complex area for non-native speakers because there are many combinations of short grammar words, such as prepositions and pronouns, and these can easily be confused. Many of the phrases given below also contain approximators such as: nearly, approximately, over half, less than, just over.
对于非母语人士来说，写数量的语言可能是一个复杂的领域，因为短语法词有很多组合，例如介词和代词，这些很容易混淆。下面给出的许多短语也包含近似值，例如：nearly， approxly， over half， less than， just over。
Describing fractions 描述分数
Over half of those surveyed indicated that …
超过一半的受访者表示......
Nearly half of the respondents (48%) agreed that …
近一半的 受访者 （48%） 同意......
Approximately half of those surveyed did not comment on …
大约一半的受访者没有评论......
Less than a third of those who responded (32%) indicated that …
不到三分之一的受访者 （32%） 表示......
The number of first marriages in the United Kingdom fell by nearly two-fifths.
英国的初婚人数下降了近五分之二。
Of the 148 patients who completed the questionnaire, just over half indicated that …
在完成问卷的 148 名患者中，略多于一半 的患者表示......
| Well over 好了 More than 超过 Just over 刚刚结束 Many more than 远不止 Around 周围 Just under 就在 | half 半 a third 第三个 a quarter 四分之一 | of those surveyed 的受访者 of the respondents 受访者 of those who responded 的受访者 | agreed that … 同意...... |
Describing proportions 描述比例
Singapore has the highest proportion of millionaire households.
新加坡的百万富翁家庭比例最高。
The annual birth rate dropped from 44.4 to 38.6 per 1000 per annum.
年出生率从每年每 1000 人 44.4 人下降到 38.6 人。
The proportion of live births outside marriage reached one in ten in 1945.
1945 年，婚外活产的比例达到十分之一。
Scotland had the lowest proportion of lone parents at only 14 per cent.
苏格兰的单亲父母比例最低，仅为 14%。
The proportion of the population attending emergency departments was 65% higher in X than …
X 区急诊科就诊的人口比例比......
Describing percentages 描述百分比
70% of those who were interviewed indicated that …
70% 的受访者表示......
Since 1981, England has experienced an 89% increase in crime.
自 1981 年以来，英格兰的犯罪率增加了 89%。
The response rate was 60% at six months and 56% at 12 months.
6 个月时反应率为 60%，12 个月时为 56%。
In 1960 just over 5% of live births in 1960 were outside marriage.
1960 年，1960 年活产婴儿的 5% 多一点是婚外出生。
Returned surveys from 34 radiologists yielded a 34% response rate.
来自 34 名放射科医生的返回调查得出 34% 的回复率。
He also noted that fewer than 10% of the articles included in his study cited …
他还指出，在他的研究中包含的文章中，只有不到 10% 引用了......
With each year of advancing age, the probability of having X increased by 9.6% (p = 0.006).
随着年龄的增长，患 X 的概率增加 9.6% （p = 0.006）。
The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 in 1970 to …
美国底层 20% 家庭的平均收入从 1970 年的 10,716 美元下降到......
X found that of 2,500 abortions, 58% were in young women aged 15-24, of whom 62% were …
X 发现，在 2,500 例堕胎中，58% 发生在 15-24 岁的年轻女性中，其中 62% 是......
| Well over 好了 More than 超过 Just over 刚刚结束 Many more than 远不止 Around 周围 Just under 就在 | 40% 50% 80% | of those surveyed 的受访者 of the respondents 受访者 of those who responded 的受访者 | agreed that … 同意...... |
Describing averages 描述平均值
The average of 12 observations in the X, Y and Z is 19.2 mgs/m …
X、Y 和 Z 中 12 次观测的平均值 为 19.2 mgs/m ...
This figure can be seen as the average life expectancy at various ages.
这个数字可以看作是不同年龄的平均预期寿命。
The proposed model suggests a steep decline in mean life expectancy …
拟议的模型表明平均 预期寿命急剧下降 ......
Roman slaves probably had a lower than average life expectancy.
罗马奴隶的预期寿命可能低于平均水平。
The mean age of Xs with coronary atherosclerosis was 48.3 ± 6.3 years.
冠 状动脉粥样硬化 X 的平均年龄分别为 48.3 ± 6.3 岁。
Mean estimated age at death was 38.1 ± 12.0 years (ranging from 10 to 60+ years)
平均估计死亡年龄为 38.1 ± 12.0 岁（年龄从 10 岁到 60+ 岁不等）
The mean score for X was subjected to multivariate analysis of variance to determine …
对 X 的平均分数 进行多变量方差分析以确定......
The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 in 1970 to …
美国底层 20% 家庭的平均收入从 1970 年的 10,716 美元下降到......
Describing ranges 描述范围
Estimates of X range from 200,000 to 700,000 and up to a million or more.
X 的估计范围从 200,000 到 700,000 不等，最高可达 100 万或更多。
The respondents had practised for an average of 15 years (range 6 to 35 years).
受访者平均执业 15 年 （范围 6 至 35 年）。
The participants were aged 19 to 25 and were from both rural and urban backgrounds.
参与者年龄在 19 至 25 岁之间，来自农村和城市背景。
Rates of decline ranged from 2.71– 0.08 cms per day with a mean of 0.97 cms per day.
下降速度为每天 2.71-0.08 厘米，平均每天 0.97 厘米。
They calculated ranges of journal use from 10.7%–36.4% for the humanities, 25%–57% for …
他们计算出人文学科的期刊使用范围为 10.7%-36.4%，人文学科的期刊使用范围为 25%-57%。
The evidence shows that life expectancy from birth lies in the range of twenty to thirty years.
证据表明，从出生开始的预期寿命在 20 到 30 岁之间。
At between 575 and 590 metres depth, the sea floor is extremely flat, with an average slope of …
在 575 至 590 米的深度之间，海底非常平坦，平均坡度为 ...
The mean income of the bottom 20 percent of U.S. families declined from $10,716 to $9,833.
美国底层 20% 家庭的平均收入从 10,716 美元下降到 9,833 美元。
Explaining causality 解释因果关系
A great deal of academic work involves understanding and suggesting solutions to problems. At postgraduate level, particularly in applied fields, students search out problems to study. In fact, one could say that problems are the raw material for a significant proportion of academic activity. However, solutions cannot be suggested unless the problem is fully analysed, and this involves a thorough understanding of the causes. Some of the language that you may find useful for explaining causes and effects is listed below.
大量的学术工作涉及理解和提出问题的解决方案。在研究生阶段，特别是在应用领域，学生会寻找要研究的问题。事实上，可以说问题是很大一部分学术活动的原材料。然而，除非对问题进行全面分析，否则无法提出解决方案，而这涉及对原因的透彻理解。下面列出了一些你可能觉得对解释因果有用的语言。
Verbs indicating causality
表示因果关系的动词
| Lack of iron in the diet 饮食中缺乏铁 | may cause 可能导致 can lead to 可能导致 can result in 可能导致 can give rise to 可以产生 | tiredness and fatigue. 疲倦和乏力。 |
| Scurvy is a disease 坏血病是一种疾病 | caused by 引起 resulting from 由 stemming from 出于 | lack of vitamin C. 缺乏维生素 C。 |
| Much of the instability in X X 中的许多不稳定性 | stems from 源于 is driven by 驱动 is caused by 由 can be attributed to 可归因于 | the economic effects of the war. 战争的经济影响。 |
Verbs indicating contributive agency
表示贡献能动性的动词
X has contributed to the decline in …
X 导致了 ...
It is now understood that X plays an important role in …
现在人们了解到 X 在......
A number of factors play a role in determining the effects of …
许多因素在决定 ...
The mixing of X and Y exerts a powerful effect upon Z through…
X 和 Y 的混合通过以下方式对 Z 产生强大的影响......
Recent research has revealed that X has a detrimental effect on …
最近的研究表明，X 对 ...
A number of factors are known to affect the volume and type of …
已知许多因素会影响 ...
All these factors can impact on the efficiency and effectiveness of …
所有这些因素都会影响 ...
X is only one of many factors that help to determine the quality of
X 只是有助于确定
| Several factors are known to 已知有几个因素 | affect X. 影响 X。 shape X. 形状 X。 predict X. 预测 X。 increase X. 增加 X。 influence X. 影响 X。 determine X. 确定 X。 affect the rate of … 影响 ... be associated with … 与 ... increase the risk of … 增加 ... be partially responsible for … 部分负责...... play a role in determining X . 在决定 X 中发挥作用。 |
Nouns indicating causality
表示因果关系的名词
One reason why Xs have declined is that …
X 下降的一个原因是......
A consequence of vitamin A deficiency is blindness.
维生素 A 缺乏症的后果是失明。
The causal role of X in Y has been demonstrated by …
X 在 Y 中的因果作用已经通过......
The most likely causes of X are poor diet and lack of exercise.
X 最可能的 原因是饮食不良和缺乏运动。
The causes of X have been the subject of intense debate within …
X 的原因一直是内部激烈争论的主题......
X can have profound health consequences for older people.
X 会对老年人的健康产生深远的影响。
Physical activity is an important factor in maintaining fitness.
体育锻炼是保持健康的重要 因素。
Many other medications have an influence on cholesterol levels.
许多其他药物对胆固醇水平有影响。
Nouns indicating contributive agency
表示贡献能动性的名词
Prepositional phrases indicating causality
表示因果关系的介词短语
| 200,000 people per year become deaf 每年有 200,000 人失聪 | owing to 由于 because of 以 as a result of 由于 as a consequence of 由于 | a lack of iodine. 缺碘。 |
Sentence connectors indicating causality
指示因果关系的句子连接符
| If undernourished children do survive to become adults, they have decreased learning ability. 如果营养不良的儿童确实活下来长大成人，他们的学习能力就会下降。 | Therefore, 因此 Consequently, 因此 Because of this, 正因为如此， As a result (of this), 因此， | when they grow up, it will probably be difficult for them to find work. 当他们长大后，他们可能很难找到工作。 |
Adverbial elements indicating causality
表示因果关系的副词元素
| Malnutrition leads to illness and a reduced ability to work in adulthood, 营养不良会导致成年后生病和工作能力下降， break 破 The warm air rises above the surface of the sea, 温暖的空气从海面上升起， | thus 因此 break 破 thereby 从而 | perpetuating the poverty cycle. 使贫困循环永久化。 break 破 creating an area of low pressure. 创建一个低压区域。 |
Indicating a possible causal relationship
指示可能的因果关系
X may be an important factor in …
X 可能是 ...
X may contribute to the increase in …
X 可能有助于增加 ...
X may play a vital role in bringing about …
X 可能在带来......
X may have been caused by an increase in …
X 可能是由 ...
There is some evidence that X may affect Y.
有一些证据表明 X 可能会影响 Y。
These findings suggest that X could improve …
这些发现表明 X 可以改善......
It is not yet clear whether X is made worse by Y.
目前尚不清楚 X 是否因 Y 而变得更糟。
Indicating a possible association
指示可能的关联
X appears to be linked to Y.
X 似乎链接到 Y。
The use of X may be linked to …
X 的使用可能与......
In many cases, X may be associated with …
在许多情况下，X 可能与 ...
In the literature, X has been associated with Y.
在文献中，X 与 Y 相关联。
A high consumption of X could be associated with …
X 的高消耗可能与......
This suggests a weak link may exist between X and Y.
这表明 X 和 Y 之间可能存在薄弱的联系。
Giving examples 举例
Writers may give specific examples as evidence to support their general claims or arguments. Examples can also be used to help the reader or listener understand unfamiliar or difficult concepts, and they tend to be easier to remember. For this reason, they are often used in teaching. Finally, students may be required to give examples in their work to demonstrate that they have understood a complex problem or concept. It is important to note that when statements are supported with examples, the explicit language signalling this may not always be used.
作者可能会给出具体的例子作为证据来支持他们的一般主张或论点。示例还可用于帮助读者或听众理解不熟悉或困难的概念，并且它们往往更容易记住。因此，它们经常用于教学。最后，可能需要学生在他们的作业中举出例子，以证明他们已经理解了一个复杂的问题或概念。需要注意的是，当 statements 支持示例时，可能并不总是使用表示这一点的显式语言。
Examples as the main information in a sentence
例作为句子中的主要信息
A well-known example of this is …
一个众所周知的例子是......
Another example of what is meant by X is …
X 的另一个例子是......
This is exemplified in the work undertaken by …
这在 ...
This distinction is further exemplified in studies using …
这种区别在使用...
An example of this is the study carried out by Smith (2004) in which …
这方面的一个例子是 Smith （2004） 进行的研究，其中......
The effectiveness of the X technique has been exemplified in a report by Smith et al. (2010)
X 技术的有效性已在 Smith 等人 （2010） 的报告中得到例证
| A classic 经典之作 A useful 一个有用的 A notable 一个值得注意的 A prominent 一个突出的 An important 重要 | example of X is ….. X 的示例为 ..... |
This is evident in the case of …
这在 ...
This is certainly true in the case of …
在这种情况下，这当然是正确的......
The evidence of X can be clearly seen in the case of …
X 的证据可以清楚地看到......
In a similar case in America, Smith (1992) identified …
在美国的一个类似案例中，Smith （1992） 确定了......
This can be seen in the case of the two London physics laboratories which …
这可以从两个伦敦物理实验室的案例中看出......
X is a good illustration of …
X 是 ...
X illustrates this point clearly.
X 清楚地说明了这一点。
This can be illustrated briefly by …
这可以用 ...
By way of illustration, Smith (2003) shows how the data for …
通过说明，Smith （2003） 展示了 ...
These experiments illustrate that X and Y have distinct functions in …
这些实验表明 X 和 Y 在 ...
For example, the word ‘doctor’ used to mean a ‘learned man’.
例如，“医生”这个词曾经是“博学的人”的意思。
For example, Smith and Jones (2004) conducted a series of semi-structured interviews in …
例如，Smith 和 Jones （2004） 在 ...
Young people begin smoking for a variety of reasons. They may, for example, be influenced by ….
年轻人开始吸烟的原因有很多。例如，他们可能会受到 ....
Examples as additional information
作为附加信息的示例
Young people begin smoking for a variety of reasons, such as pressure from peers or …
年轻人开始吸烟的原因有很多，例如来自同龄人的压力或......
The prices of resources, such as copper, iron ore, and aluminium, have declined over …
铜、铁矿石和铝等资源的价格在过去一段时间内下跌了......
Pavlov found that if a stimulus, for example the ringing of a bell, preceded the food, the …
巴甫洛夫发现，如果在食物之前有刺激，例如铃声响起，那么......
Many diseases can result at least in part from stress, including: arthritis, asthma, and migraine.
许多疾病至少部分是由压力引起的，包括：关节炎、哮喘和偏头痛。
Gassendi kept in close contact with many other scholars, such as Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, and …
加森迪与许多其他学者保持着密切联系，例如开普勒、伽利略、笛卡尔和......
Reporting cases as support
报告案例作为支持
This case has shown that …
本案表明......
This has been seen in the case of …
这在 ...
The case reported here illustrates the …
这里报道的案例说明了......
Overall, these cases support the view that …
总体而言，这些案例支持以下观点：......
This case study confirms the importance of …
本案例研究证实了 ...
The evidence presented thus far supports the idea that …
迄今为止提供的证据支持这样的观点......
This case demonstrates the need for better strategies for …
这个案例表明需要更好的策略来......
As this case very clearly demonstrates, it is important that …
正如本案非常清楚地表明的那样，重要的是......
This case reveals the need for further investigation in patients with …
该病例揭示了对 ...
This case demonstrates how X used innovative marketing strategies in …
这个案例展示了 X 如何在......
Recent cases reported by Smith et al. (2013) also support the hypothesis that …
Smith 等人报告的近期病例。（2013） 也支持......
In support of X, Y has been shown to induce Y in several cases (Smith et al., 2001).
为了支持 X，Y 已被证明在几种情况下会诱导 Y（Smith et al.， 2001）。
Previewing what is to follow in a paper or dissertation is like showing a map to a driver; it enables them to see where they are going. So it is useful to think of a preview section as a ‘road map’ for the reader. It must be accurate, but it must be easy to follow.
预览论文或学位论文中的内容就像向司机展示地图;它使他们能够看到他们要去的地方。因此，将预览部分视为读者的“路线图”是很有用的。它必须准确，但必须易于遵循。
Writers are also expected to indicate to the reader when they are moving from one topic to another, or from one section of text to another. These are known as transition statements and examples of these, together with some previewing statements, are given below.
作者还应向读者表明他们何时从一个主题转移到另一个主题，或从一段文本转移到另一部分。这些语句称为 transition 语句，下面给出了这些语句的示例以及一些预览语句。
Previewing sections of text
预览文本部分
The section below describes …
以下部分描述了...
What follows is an account of …
以下是对......
In the following pages, I will present …
在接下来的页面中，我将介绍......
The following is a brief description of …
以下是 ...
In the section that follows, it will be argued that …
在以下部分中，将论证......
The problem of X is discussed in the following section.
X 的问题将在下一节中讨论。
A more detailed account of X is given in the following section.
下一节将对 X 进行更详细的描述。
The structure and functions of X will be explained in the following section.
X 的结构和功能将在下一节中解释。
The following part of this paper moves on to describe in greater detail the …
本文的以下部分继续更详细地描述......
| The section below 以下部分 The section that follows 以下部分 | discusses … 讨论。。。 provides a brief overview of … 提供了 ... establishes the framework for … 建立框架 ... reviews the literature related to … 综述了与 ... explores the relationship between … 探讨了 ... presents two influential theories which … 提出了两个有影响力的理论，它们...... |
Introducing a new topic 引入新主题
Regarding X, … 关于 X，...
As regards X, … 至于 X，......
In terms of X, …
就 X 而言，...
In the case of, X …
在 X ...
With regard to X, …
关于 X，......
With respect to X, …
关于 X，...
On the question of X, …
关于 X 的问题，......
As far as X is concerned, …
就 X 而言，......
Reintroducing a topic 重新引入主题
As discussed above, … 如上所述，...
As explained earlier, … 如前所述，...
As previously stated, … 如前所述，...
As indicated previously, …
如前所述，...
As described on the previous page, …
如上一页所述，...
As was mentioned in the previous chapter, …
正如上一章所述，......
Returning (briefly) to the (subject/issue) of X, …
（简要地）回到 X 的（主题/问题），...
As explained in the introduction, it is clear that …
正如引言中所解释的，很明显......
As was pointed out in the introduction to this paper, …
正如本文的引言中所指出的，......
Moving from one section to the next
从一个部分移动到下一个部分
Turning now to … 现在转向...
Let us now turn to …
现在让我们转向......
Let us now consider …
现在让我们考虑一下......
Moving on now to consider …
现在继续考虑......
Turning now to the experimental evidence on …
现在转向关于......
Before proceeding to examine X, it is important to …
在继续检查 X 之前，重要的是要......
Before explaining these theories, it is necessary to …
在解释这些理论之前，有必要......
Having defined what is meant by X, I will now move on to discuss …
在定义了 X 的含义之后，我现在将继续讨论......
So far this paper has focused on X. The following section will discuss …
到目前为止，本文主要关注 X。以下部分将讨论 ...
This chapter has demonstrated that … It is now necessary to explain the course of …
本章已经证明......现在有必要解释一下......
Having discussed how to construct X, the final section of this paper addresses ways of …
在讨论了如何构造 X 之后，本文的最后一部分讨论了 ...
This section has analysed the causes of X and has argued that … The next part of this paper will …
本节分析了 X 的原因，并论证了......本文的下一部分将 ...
Moving from one section to the next, indicating addition or contrast
从一个部分移动到下一个部分，表示添加或对比
Another significant aspect of X is …
X 的另一个重要方面是......
In addition, it is important to ask …
此外，重要的是要问......
Unlike Smith, Jones (2014) has argued …
与 Smith 不同，Jones （2014） 认为......
In contrast to Smith, Jones (2014) maintains …
与 Smith 相反，Jones （2014） 认为......
Despite this, little progress has been made in the …
尽管如此，在 ...
However, this system also has a number of serious drawbacks.
但是，该系统也有许多严重的缺点。
On the other hand, in spite of these recent findings about the role of …,
另一方面，尽管最近有这些关于......，
Summarising a section or chapter
部分或章节总结
Thus far, the thesis has argued that …
到目前为止，该论文认为......
The previous section has shown that …
上一节已经表明......
To conclude this section, the literature identifies …
为了总结本节，文献确定了......
This section has reviewed the three key aspects of …
本节回顾了 ...
In summary, it has been shown from this review that …
总之，这篇评论表明......
This chapter has described the methods used in this investigation and it has …
本章描述了本调查中使用的方法，它有......
This section has attempted to provide a brief summary of the literature relating to …
本节试图提供与......
This chapter began by describing X and arguing that … It went on to suggest that the …
本章首先描述了 X 并论证了......它继续建议......
In this section, it has been explained that … The chapter that follows moves on to consider the…
在本节中，已经解释了......接下来的一章继续考虑......
Previewing a following chapter
预览下一章
In the chapter that follows, I present …
在接下来的章节中，我将介绍......
The next chapter describes the synthesis and evaluation of …
下一章描述了 ...
A summary of the main findings, together with …, is provided in the next chapter.
主要发现的摘要以及 ...，将在下一章中提供。
The next chapter describes the procedures and methods used in this investigation …
下一章将介绍此调查中使用的程序和方法......
In the next section, I will present the principal findings of the current investigation …
在下一节中，我将介绍当前调查的主要发现......
These analytical procedures and the results obtained from them are described in the next chapter.
这些分析程序以及从中获得的结果将在下一章中介绍。
| The next chapter 下一章 The following chapter 下一章 | moves on to consider … 继续考虑...... provides an account of … 提供了 ... presents a case study of … 介绍了一个案例研究...... establishes the framework for … 建立框架 ... reviews the literature related to … 综述了与 ... explores the relationship between … 探讨了 ... summarises the main themes that emerged … 总结了出现的主要主题...... |
Writing about the past 书写过去
Writing about the past in English is made difficult by the rather complex tense system. However, the phrases grouped below give an indication of the uses of the main tenses in academic writing. For a comprehensive explanation of the uses of the various tenses you will need to consult a good English grammar book. A good recommendation is Practical English Usage by Michael Swan, Oxford University Press.
用英语写过去由于相当复杂的时态系统而变得困难。然而，下面分组的短语表明了主要时态在学术写作中的用法。要全面解释各种时态的用法，您需要查阅一本好的英语语法书。一个很好的推荐是 Michael Swan 的 Practical English Usage ，牛津大学出版社。
Time phrases associated with the use of the simple past tense: specific times or periods of time in the past
与使用简单过去时相关的时间短语：过去的特定时间或时间段
| In 1933, 1933 年， Three years later, 三年后， From 1933 to 1945, 从 1933 年到 1945 年， In the 1930s and 1940s, 在 1930 年代和 1940 年代， During the Nazi period, 在纳粹时期， Between 1933 and 1945, 1933 年至 1945 年间， | restrictions were placed on German academics. 德国学者受到限制。 |
| For centuries, 几个世纪以来， Throughout the 19th century, 在整个 19 世纪， At the start of the 19th century, 19 世纪初， In the latter half of the 19th century, 19 世纪下半叶， At the beginning of the 19th century, 19 世纪初， Towards the end of the 19th century, 19 世纪末， In the early years of the 19th century, 19 世纪初， At the end of the nineteenth century, 19 世纪末， In the second half of the 19th century, 19 世纪下半叶， | authorities placed restrictions on academics. 当局对学者施加了限制。 |
Time phrases associated with the use of the present perfect tense: past and present connected
与现在完成时使用相关的时间短语：过去和现在相连
To date, little evidence has been found associating X with Y.
迄今为止，几乎没有发现将 X 与 Y 联系起来的证据。
Up to now, the research has tended to focus on X rather than on Y.
到目前为止，研究往往集中在 X 而不是 Y 上。
So far, three factors have been identified as being potentially important: X, Y, and Z.
到目前为止，已经确定了三个可能重要的因素：X、Y 和 Z。
Since 1965, these four economies have doubled their share of world production and trade.
自 1965 年以来，这四个经济体在世界生产和贸易中的份额翻了一番。
Until recently, there has been little interest in X.
直到最近，人们对 X 的兴趣还很小。
Recently, these questions have been addressed by researchers in many fields.
最近，许多领域的研究人员都解决了这些问题。
In recent years, researchers have investigated a variety of approaches to X but …
近年来，研究人员研究了 X 的各种方法，但......
More recently, literature has emerged that offers contradictory findings about …
最近，出现了一些文献，对......
The past decade has seen the rapid development of X in many …
过去十年见证了 X 在许多领域的快速发展......
Over the past 30 years there has been a significant increase in …
在过去的 30 年里，...
Over the past century there has been a dramatic increase in …
在过去的一个世纪里，......
Over the past few decades, the world has seen the stunning transformation of X, Y and Z.
在过去的几十年里，世界见证了 X、Y 和 Z 的惊人转变。
The present perfect tense is typically used to describe recent research with several contributors
现在完成时通常用于描述最近由多个贡献者进行的研究
For reference to single investigations or publications in the past, the simple past tense is used
对于过去的单个调查或出版物，使用简单过去时
| The first 第一个 | detection of X came in 1992 when … X 的检测是在 1992 年...... systematic study of X was reported by Smith et al. in 1992. Smith 等人于 1992 年报道了 X 的系统研究。 experimental treatment of X, by Smith et al. (1992), used a … Smith et al. （1992） 对 X 的实验处理使用了 ... |
| In 1969 1969年 | Smith et al. Smith 等人。 | performed the first … 执行了第一个 ... published a paper in which they described … 发表了一篇论文，其中描述了...... introduced a system of classification based on … 引入了基于... demonstrated that X induced in vitro resistance to … 证明 X 诱导了对 ... |
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