Chap.8 总结《CL: An Introduction》 (Vyvyan Evans)

Chap.8: Categorisation and idealised cognitive methods

• Categorisation: our ability to identify perceived similarities (and differences) between entities and thus group them together. 范畴化是一种能力，一种辨别事物间相同和不同之处并将它们划为一组的能力。
• Categorisation both relies upon and gives rise to concepts. 范畴化既来源于概念，由作用于概念（用来划分概念）。
• Categorisation is central to the conceptual system in that it accounts for the organisation of concepts within the network of encyclopaedic knowledge. 范畴化在概念系统中占据关键地位，因为其解释了百科知识网络中概念的结构。

Categorisation and cognitive semantics

• The classical theory 经典范畴理论存在问题 (略, See p. 251-254)

Prototypical theory 原型范畴理论

• Humans categorise not by means of the necessary and sufficient conditions, but with reference to a prototype. 原型范畴理论认为，人们在进行范畴化时，是依据某个原型进行范畴化的操作。
• Prototype 原型
  -Prototype is a relatively abstract mental representation that assembles the key attributes or features that best represent instances of a given category.
  -The prototype is conceived as a schematic representation of the most salient or central characteristics associated with members of the category in question.

范畴理论的两个原则

• Two basic principles that guide the formation of categories: the principle of cognitive economy, and the principle of perceived world structure.
  -The principle of cognitive economy: Human beings attempt to gain as much information about its environment while minimising cognitive effort and resources. 认知经济原则：人们希望花费最少的认知努力获取最多的信息。因而有了产生范畴的(推)动力。
  -The principle of perceived world structure: The world has correlational structure. And humans rely upon correlational structure of this kind in order to form and organise categories. 感知世界原则：世界中的事物是相互联系的。人类根据事物间的相互联系的这种结构来形成和组织范畴（因而有了形成和组织范畴的基础）。
  These principles together give rise to the human categorisation system. 这两个原则一起产生了人类范畴化系统。

范畴的维度

• The principle of cognitive economy has implications for the level of inclusiveness, the principle of correlational structure has implications for the representativeness or prototype structure of categories. 认知经济原则暗含了内涵丰富性，感知世界原则暗含了代表性。
  This gives rise to two dimensions of categories: a horizational and vertical dimension. 因而范畴有两个维度，水平维度和垂直维度。
• -The vertical dimension relates to the level of inclusiveness. Inclusiveness relates to what is subsumed within a particular category. 垂直维度代表着某一范畴的内涵丰富性。

垂直维度与基本层次范畴

• Categories at the mid-level between the most inclusive and least inclusive levels are called basic-level categories. Categories higher up the vertical axis, which provide less detail, are called superordinate categories; these lower down the vertical axis, which provide more detail, are called subordinate categories. 位于垂直维度中间位置的范畴是基本层次范畴（基本范畴）。
• The basic level is the most inclusive and informative level. Basic-level of categorisation is the most important level for human categorisation. 基本层次范畴是内涵最丰富的，是人类范畴化过程中最重要的范畴层次。
  The reason is that basic-level categorisaion best reconciles the conflicting demands of cognitive economy: to share as many common within-category attributes as possible, while maintaining the highest possible level of between-category difference. 原因是：基本层次范畴最好的解决了认知经济原则的冲突，即既要保证范畴内成员的相似性，又要保证范畴间的不同。
• Another way of descrbing the importance of the basic level is by related it to perceptual salience. 而且，基本层次范畴的重要性还能通过感知显著性来体现。The basic level represents the most salient level of categorisation.
  -The basic level appears to be the most abstract level at which it is possible to form a mental image.
  -In terms of perceptual verification, objects are reorganised more rapidly as members of basic-level categories that other sorts of categories.
• In terms of language acquisition, basic-level terms are among the first concrete nouns to emerge in child language. 此外，从语言习得角度来看，儿童语言中首先出现的具体名词往往属于基本层次的词语。
• Are basic-level categories universal? 基本层次范畴是universal的吗？
  -The organisation of conceptual categories into basic, superordinate and subordinate levels may be universal, the level at which particular categories appear may not be. 所有人的概念范畴中都会有基本层次范畴，但不同群体概念中的基本层次范畴是不一样的（如特有的知识，文化背景的影响）。

水平维度

• One consequence of the exisitence of correlational structure in the world is that cognitive categories themselves reflect this strucrue: the category prototype reflects the greater number of correlational features. 世界内部是相互联系的，认知范畴内部各成员也是相互联系的，范畴原型具有更多的共有（相互联系的）属性。
• Categories often exhibit typicality effects, where certain members of the category are judged as more representative examples than others. 范畴具有典型性特征，部分成员相对其他成员更具代表性。
• Not only do categories exhibit typicality effects, category members also exhibit family resemblence. 范畴除了具有典型性特征，范畴内部成员也具有家族相似性特征。
• Problems with prototype theory
  -A number of critisims have been put forward against prototype theory.
  -To reply to these critisms, Lakoff argues that it is mistaken to equate prototype or typically effects with cognitive representations. Rather, typicality effects are surface phenomena. Typicality effects might therefore be described in intuitive terms as superficial symptom of the way our minds work. They are a consequence of complex mental models that combine to give rise to typicality effects.
  -Lakoff proposed a theory of cognitive models that might explain the typicality effects. (See below the theory of idealised cognitive models)
  针对对原型范畴理论提出的质疑，Lakoff提出，典型性特征和原型不能直接与认知表征层面划等号，而是我们思维工作方式的表层形式，由深层机制（如复杂的概念模型）产生。对此，Lakoff提出了理想化概念模型(ICM)理论。

The theory of idealised cognitive models 理想化认知模型理论

• To account for the category theory, Lakoff developed a theory called theory of idealised cognitve models.
• ICMs are relatively stable mental representations that represent theories about the world. ICMs are rich in detail, they are idealised because they abstract across a range of experiences rather than representing specific instances of a given experience.
• In Langacker’s theory, ICMs guide cognitive processes like categorisation and reasoning.

Sources of typicality effects 典型性特征的产生

• 1.Typicality effects can arise due to mismatches between ICMs against which particular concepts are understood.
• 2.Typicality effects due to cluster models. When one of the ICMs that contributes to the cluster is viewed as primary, typicality effects take place. And this results in the other subcategories being ranked as less important. 模型类聚会产生典型性特征。当多个模型类聚在一起时，其中一个子模型会被认为是比类聚中其他子模型更重要的更基本的，典型性特征就产生了。The cluster model gives rise to typicality effects by ranking one of the subcatogories as more important than others.
• 3.Typicality effects due to metonomy (转喻). This kind of typicality effect arises when an exemplar stands for an entire category. Metonymic ICMs give rise to typicality effectsm, as other members of the category are judged as atypical relative to the metonymic model. 转喻是用部分指代整体，因此被用来指代整体的这一部分就比别的部分显得更具有典型性。A metonymic model gives rise to typicality by defining cultural expectations relating to this category. 一个转喻模型能够体现典型性是通过给该范畴赋予文化所期盼的事物实现的（如，中文中“鸟”的典型就是麻雀，西方世界则可能是"robin"）。
• 4.A composite prototype (复合原型) is a prototype draws upon information from more than one models. This prototype provides representative structure for the category. Further models are motivated from this composite model. A composite model and extensions of this kind are modelled in terms of a radiating lattice structure. 复合原型是基于来自多个模型的信息产生的。该原型代表了该范畴的代表性结构。复合原型能够延伸出其他的范畴成员，如下图显示的辐射性网络结构。
  
  Importantly, radial categories are motivated by the prototype (the central case), but what non-central cases will be is a consequence of cultural experience. 值得注意的是，辐射出来的范畴成员是受原型启发的，但具体实现由文化经历的决定。
  Typicality arises from radial categories, in which members of a radial category exhibit degrees of typicality depending on how close to the composite prototype they are. 辐射性范畴中的典型性特征体现在范畴成员距离复合原型的距离的远近。
  第四种方式与第一种方式的不同在于：第一种是范畴成员与原型之间的对比，原型更具典型性特征；第四种是范畴成员间对比，某成员比另一成员更具典型性特征。
• 以下是关于典型性特征(typicality)产生的四种方式的总结。
  
  The structure of ICMs
• ICMs encompass a wider range of conceptual phenomena than frames and that frames are just one kind of ICM.
• ICMs structure mental spaces: conceptual packets of knowledge constructed during ongoing meaning construction. Language prompts for the construction of mental spaces in ongoing discourse. The role of ICMs is to provide the background knowledge that can be recruited in order to structure mental spaces.
• ICMs depen upon (at least) five sorts of structuring principles for their composition: image schema, propositions, metaphor, metonomy, and symbolism. 根据ICM内部结构的不同，可以有五种ICM。
  -1. Image schematic ICMs (意象图式型ICM): A fundamental building-block of conceptual structure is the image schema. For example, our ICM for SPACE are structured in large part by image schemas like CONTAINER, SOURCE-PATH-GOAL, PART-WHOLE, UP-DOWN, FRONT-BACK and so on.
  -2. Propositional ICM (命题型ICM): ICMs of this kind are not structured by imaginative devices like metaphor and metonomy. An ICM of this kind consists of propositional (or factual) knowledge.
  -3. Metaphoric ICMs (隐喻型ICM): Metaphoric ICMs are structured by the projection or mapping of structure from a source domain to a target domain. For example, the domain or ICM of LOVE is metaphorically structured in terms of a JOURNEY. Metaphoric ICMs are target domains.
  -4. Metonomic ICMs (转喻型ICM): For example, ICMs like sterotypes, paragons and ideals are metonymic.
  -5. Symbolic ICMs (象征型ICM): This kind of ICM is explicitly structure by language (rather than providing a purely conceptual structure that underlies language), its structure contains symbolic units. Like the COMMERICAL EVENT frame relative to buy, sell and so on. (See p.281)