Introduction to Linear Algebra(4) Vector Spaces

rules of vector space

for each $u,v$ in vector space $V$. $u+v$, $cu$, $cv$ are in $V$

The Null Space of a Matrix

the set of $x$ that satisfy $Ax=0$ is the null space of the matrix $A$.

The column Space of a Matrix

The column space of $m\times n$ matrix $A$ written as $ColA$ is a set of all linear combinations of the columns of $A$ if $A=[a_1\cdots a_n]$, thus
C o l A = s p a n { a 1 ⋯ a n } ColA=span\{a_1 \cdots a_n\} ColA=span{a1​⋯an​}
Noted:
column space of an $m\times n$ matrix $A$ is all of $R^m$ if and only if the equation $Ax=b$ has a solution for each b in $R^m$.

Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation

For a linear transformation $T$:$V\to W$, the kernel of $T$ is a set of vectors $x$: for each $u$ $T(u)=0$, the range of $T$ is the set of all vectors in $W$ of form $T(x)$ for some $x$ in $V$.
If this transformation is matrix transformation, then kernel of $A$ is $NulA$, range of $A$ is $ColA$
β = { b 1 , b 2 , ⋯ b n } \beta=\{b_1,b_2,\cdots b_n\} β={b1​,b2​,⋯bn​} is the bais of $H$ if: $\beta$ is a linear independent set and H = s p a n { b 1 , b 2 , ⋯   , b n } H=span \{b_1,b_2,\cdots , b_n\} H=span{b1​,b2​,⋯,bn​}

Coordinate Systems

Suppose β = { b 1 , b 2 , ⋯ b n } \beta=\{b_1,b_2,\cdots b_n\} β={b1​,b2​,⋯bn​} is the basis for $V$ and $x$ is in $V$. The coordinates of $x$ relative to the basis $\beta$ are weights $c_1,\cdots ,c_n$ such that $x=c_1{b}_1,\cdots ,c_n{b}_n$

The Coordinate Mapping

Let β = { b 1 , b 2 , ⋯ b n } \beta=\{b_1,b_2,\cdots b_n\} β={b1​,b2​,⋯bn​} be the basis of a vector space $V$. Then the coordinating mapping $x\to x_{\beta }$ is a one-to-one linear transformation from $V$ onto $R^n$

dimension of $NulA$ and $ColA$

Pivotal columns of a matrix $A$ form a basis for $ColA$, thus the demension of $ColA$ is the number of pivotal columns in $A$.
The dimension of $NulA$ is the free variables in equation $Ax=0$

row space

If two matrices $A$ and $B$ are row equivalent, then their row spaces are the same. If $B$ is in echelon form, the nonzero rows of $B$ form a basis for the row space of $A$ as well as for that of $B$.

The rank theorem

the rank of $A$ is the dimension of the column space of $A$.
Dimension of $ColA$ and $RowA$ for $m\times n$ matrix $A$ are equal. $$RankA+dimNulA=n$$

Rank and the Invertible Matrix Theorem

Let A be an $n\times n$ matrix. Then the following statements are each equivalent to the statement that $A$ is an invertible matrix.
m. The columns of $A$ form a basis of $R^n$
n.$ColA=R^n$
o.$dimColA=n$
p.$rankA=n$
q. N u l A = { 0 } NulA=\{0\} NulA={0}
r.$dimNulA=0$
in practical, the effective rank of a matrix $A$ is often determined from a singular value decomposition of $A$.
Let β = { b 1 , b 2 , ⋯   , b n } \beta=\{b_1,b_2,\cdots,b_n\} β={b1​,b2​,⋯,bn​} and c = { c 1 , ⋯   , c n } c=\{c_1,\cdots,c_n\} c={c1​,⋯,cn​} be the bases of a vector space $V$. Then there is a unique $n\times n$ matrix $\underset{C\leftarrow B}{P}$ such that $$[x{]}_c=\underset{C\leftarrow B}{P}[x{]}_b$$
The columns of $\underset{C\leftarrow B}{P}$ are $C-$ coordinate vecctors of the vectors in the basis $\beta$. That is,$$\underset{C\leftarrow B}{P}=[[b_1{]}_c[b_2{]}_c\cdots [b_n{]}_c]$$

Applications to Linear Difference Equations

If $a_n̸=0$ and if { z k } \{z_k\} {zk​} is given, the equation for all $k$: $$y_{k+n}+a_0{y}_{k+n-1}+a_1{y}_{k+n-2}+\cdots +a_n{y}_k=z_k$$
has a uniques solution whenever the $y_0,\cdots ,y_{n-1}$ are specified.

The set of $H$ of all solutions of the $n$th-order homogeneous linear difference equation$$y_{k+n}+a_0{y}_{k+n-1}+a_1{y}_{k+n-2}+\cdots +a_n{y}_k=z_k$$ is an n-demensional vector space

Application to Markove Chains

A vector with nonnegative entries that add up to 1 is called a probability vector. A stochastic matrix is a square matrix whose columns are probability vectors. A markove chain is a sequence of probability vectors $x_0,x_1,x_2,\cdots$, together with a stochastic matrix $P$, such that:
$x_1=P{x}_0,x_2=P{x}_1,\cdots x_n=P{x}_{n-1}$