文章目录
本篇文章适合个人复习翻阅,不建议新手入门使用
参考书:《高等代数学》谢启鸿 姚慕生 吴泉水 编著
1.行列式基本知识
1.1 归纳地定义行列式
二阶:
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\begin{vmatrix} a_{11} & a_{12} \\ a_{21} & a_{22} \\ \end{vmatrix}=a_{11}a_{22}-a_{21}a_{12}
a11a21a12a22
=a11a22−a21a12
三阶:
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\begin{vmatrix} a_{11}& a_{12}& a_{13}\\ a_{21}& a_{22}& a_{23}\\ a_{31}& a_{32}& a_{33}\\ \end{vmatrix}=a_{11}M_{11}-a_{21}M_{21}+a_{31}M_{31}
a11a21a31a12a22a32a13a23a33
=a11M11−a21M21+a31M31
n阶:
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\begin{split} &\begin{vmatrix} a_{11}& a_{12}& \cdots &a_{1n}\\ a_{21}& a_{22}& \cdots &a_{2n}\\ \vdots& \vdots& & \vdots\\ a_{n1}& a_{n2}& \cdots&a_{nn}\\ \end{vmatrix}\\ &\quad\\ =a_{11}M_{11}&-a_{21}M_{21}+\cdots +(-1)^{n+1}a_{n1}M_{n1} \end{split}
=a11M11
a11a21⋮an1a12a22⋮an2⋯⋯⋯a1na2n⋮ann
−a21M21+⋯+(−1)n+1an1Mn1
其中M代表余子式,可以记 ( − 1 ) i + j M i j (-1)^{i+j}M_{ij} (−1)i+jMij为 A i j A_{ij} Aij,称作代数余子式
1.2 组合定义
行列式也可以一般地定义行列式,记
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A=(a_{ij})_{n\times n}
A=(aij)n×n,则有
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|A|=\sum\limits_{(k_1,k_2,\dots,k_n)\in S_n}(-1)^{N(k_1,k_2,\dots,k_n)}a_{k_11}a_{k_22}\cdots a_{k_nn}
∣A∣=(k1,k2,…,kn)∈Sn∑(−1)N(k1,k2,…,kn)ak11ak22⋯aknn
其中
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N(k_1,k_2,\dots,k_n)
N(k1,k2,…,kn)表示排列
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(k_1,k_2,\dots,k_n)
(k1,k2,…,kn)相对于
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(1,2,…,n)的逆序数
注:
- 逆序数即为逆序对的个数,可以用字典法观察得到
- 该定义的原始想法是:行列式对应的矩阵可以由重排矩阵线性表出
1.3 行列式的基本性质:
- 上(下)三角行列式的值为对角线元素之积
- 某行(列)全为0,行列式值为0
- 某行(列)变为原来的常数c倍,行列式的值变为原来c倍
- 交换两行(列),行列式改变符号
- 存在两行(列)成比例,行列式值为0
- 某行(列)为两项之和,则行列式可拆分为两行列式之和
- 某行(列)乘以常数加到另一行(列),值不变
- 转置不改变行列式的值
给第六条举个例子吧:
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\begin{vmatrix} a_{11}&a_{12}+c_{21}\\ b_{21}&b_{22}+c_{22}\\ \end{vmatrix}= \begin{vmatrix} a_{11}&a_{12}\\ b_{21}&b_{22}\\ \end{vmatrix}+ \begin{vmatrix} a_{11}& c_{21}\\ b_{21}&c_{22}\\ \end{vmatrix}
a11b21a12+c21b22+c22
=
a11b21a12b22
+
a11b21c21c22
1.4 行列式乘法定理:
设A,B都是n阶方阵,则 ∣ A B ∣ = ∣ A ∣ ∣ B ∣ |AB|=|A||B| ∣AB∣=∣A∣∣B∣
引理:设n阶方阵A,n阶初等矩阵Q,则 ∣ Q A ∣ = ∣ Q ∣ ∣ A ∣ = ∣ A Q ∣ |QA|=|Q||A|=|AQ| ∣QA∣=∣Q∣∣A∣=∣AQ∣
证明思路:
- 若A非奇异:利用非异阵可表为初等阵之积
- 若A奇异:利用A的相抵标准型
2. 行列式解线性方程组
2.1 Cramer法则
考虑如下的线性方程组AX=b,即
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\begin{pmatrix} a_{11}& a_{12}& \cdots &a_{1n}\\ a_{21}& a_{22}& \cdots &a_{2n}\\ \vdots& \vdots& & \vdots\\ a_{n1}& a_{n2}& \cdots&a_{nn}\\ \end{pmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} x_1\\x_2\\ \vdots \\x_n\\ \end{pmatrix}= \begin{pmatrix} b_1\\b_2\\ \vdots \\b_n\\ \end{pmatrix}
a11a21⋮an1a12a22⋮an2⋯⋯⋯a1na2n⋮ann
x1x2⋮xn
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b1b2⋮bn
记用b代替系数行列式
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∣A∣的第j列得到的行列式为
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∣Ai∣,即
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|A_i|=\begin{vmatrix} a_{11}&\cdots&a_{1,i-1}&b_1& a_{1,i+1}& \cdots &a_{1n}\\ a_{21}&\cdots&a_{2,i-1}&b_2& a_{2,i+1}& \cdots &a_{2n}\\ \vdots&&\vdots&\vdots& \vdots&& \vdots\\ a_{n1}&\cdots&a_{n,i-1}&b_n& a_{n,i+1}& \cdots&a_{nn}\\ \end{vmatrix}
∣Ai∣=
a11a21⋮an1⋯⋯⋯a1,i−1a2,i−1⋮an,i−1b1b2⋮bna1,i+1a2,i+1⋮an,i+1⋯⋯⋯a1na2n⋮ann
若
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∣A∣=0,则方程组的解为
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x_1=\frac{|A_1|}{|A|},x_2=\frac{|A_2|}{|A|},\dots,x_n=\frac{|A_n|}{|A|}
x1=∣A∣∣A1∣,x2=∣A∣∣A2∣,…,xn=∣A∣∣An∣
证明思路:
- 先导出解的必要形式,再验证这个形式的确是解
- 导出形式:将方程组代入 ∣ A i ∣ |A_i| ∣Ai∣
- 验证:代入解,将 ∣ A i ∣ |A_i| ∣Ai∣按第i列展开
3. 行列式的展开
3.1 低阶展开
行列式展开的方式
- 行列式可以按第一列展开:行列式的归纳定义
- 行列式可以按任意一列展开:由基本性质4易证,只需将所要展开的列换为第一列
- 行列式可以按第一行展开:
∣ A ∣ = ∣ a 11 ⋯ a 1 n ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 ⋯ a n n ∣ = ∣ a 11 0 ⋯ 0 a 21 a 22 ⋯ a 2 n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 a n 2 ⋯ a n n ∣ + ⋯ + ∣ 0 0 ⋯ a 1 n a 21 a 22 ⋯ a 2 n ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ a n 1 a n 2 ⋯ a n n ∣ = a 11 A 11 + ⋯ + a 1 n A 1 n \begin{split} |A|&= \begin{vmatrix} a_{11} & \cdots &a_{1n}\\ \vdots& &\vdots\\ a_{n1}&\cdots&a_{nn}\\ \end{vmatrix}\\ &= \begin{vmatrix} a_{11} &0& \cdots &0\\ a_{21}&a_{22}&\cdots &a_{2n}\\ \vdots&\vdots& &\vdots\\ a_{n1}&a_{n2}&\cdots&a_{nn}\\ \end{vmatrix}+\cdots+ \begin{vmatrix} 0 &0& \cdots &a_{1n}\\ a_{21}&a_{22}&\cdots &a_{2n}\\ \vdots&\vdots& &\vdots\\ a_{n1}&a_{n2}&\cdots&a_{nn}\\ \end{vmatrix}\\ &=a_{11}A_{11}+\cdots+a_{1n}A_{1n} \end{split} ∣A∣= a11⋮an1⋯⋯a1n⋮ann = a11a21⋮an10a22⋮an2⋯⋯⋯0a2n⋮ann +⋯+ 0a21⋮an10a22⋮an2⋯⋯⋯a1na2n⋮ann =a11A11+⋯+a1nA1n - 行列式可以按任意一行,任意一列展开
3.2 高阶展开
3.2.1 补充定义
设 k < n , 1 ≤ i 1 < i 2 < ⋯ < i k ≤ n , 1 ≤ j 1 < j 2 < ⋯ < j k ≤ n k<n,1\leq i_1<i_2<\cdots<i_k\leq n,1\leq j_1<j_2<\cdots<j_k\leq n k<n,1≤i1<i2<⋯<ik≤n,1≤j1<j2<⋯<jk≤n
k阶子式:取行列式 ∣ A ∣ |A| ∣A∣中的第 i 1 , i 2 , … , i k i_1,i_2,\dots ,i_k i1,i2,…,ik行和第 j 1 , j 2 , … , j k j_1,j_2,\dots,j_k j1,j2,…,jk列的交叉元素组成一个k阶行列式,称为k阶子式,记为 A ( i 1 i 2 ⋯ i k j 1 j 2 ⋯ j k ) A\begin{pmatrix} i_1&i_2&\cdots &i_k\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots &j_k\\ \end{pmatrix} A(i1j1i2j2⋯⋯ikjk)
余子式:去掉第
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j1,j2,…,jk列的所有元素,可以得到一个n-k阶行列式,称为上述k阶子式的余子式,记
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M\begin{pmatrix} i_1&i_2&\cdots &i_k\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots &j_k\\ \end{pmatrix}
M(i1j1i2j2⋯⋯ikjk)
代数余子式:
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p=i_1+i_2+\cdots+i_k,q=j_1+j_2+\cdots+j_k
p=i1+i2+⋯+ik,q=j1+j2+⋯+jk,
记
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\begin{split} &\hat{A}\begin{pmatrix} i_1&i_2&\cdots &i_k\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots &j_k\\ \end{pmatrix}\\ &\quad\\ =(-&1)^{p+q}M \begin{pmatrix} i_1&i_2&\cdots &i_k\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots &j_k\\ \end{pmatrix}\\ \end{split}
=(−A^(i1j1i2j2⋯⋯ikjk)1)p+qM(i1j1i2j2⋯⋯ikjk)
称为k阶子式的代数余子式
3.2.2 Laplace定理
设n阶行列式 ∣ A ∣ |A| ∣A∣,在 ∣ A ∣ |A| ∣A∣中任取k行(列), ∣ A ∣ |A| ∣A∣可展为含于这k行(列)的全部k阶子式与它们对应的代数余子式的乘积之和,
即若取定k行:
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|A|=\sum\limits_{1\leq j_1<j_2<\cdots<j_k\leq n}A\begin{pmatrix} i_1&i_2&\cdots &i_k\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots &j_k\\ \end{pmatrix} \hat{A}\begin{pmatrix} i_1&i_2&\cdots &i_k\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots &j_k\\ \end{pmatrix}
∣A∣=1≤j1<j2<⋯<jk≤n∑A(i1j1i2j2⋯⋯ikjk)A^(i1j1i2j2⋯⋯ikjk)
若取定k列:
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|A|=\sum\limits_{1\leq i_1<i_2<\cdots<i_k\leq n}A\begin{pmatrix} i_1&i_2&\cdots &i_k\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots &j_k\\ \end{pmatrix} \hat{A}\begin{pmatrix} i_1&i_2&\cdots &i_k\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots &j_k\\ \end{pmatrix}
∣A∣=1≤i1<i2<⋯<ik≤n∑A(i1j1i2j2⋯⋯ikjk)A^(i1j1i2j2⋯⋯ikjk)
证明思路:
- 按照行列式的组合定义,行列式共有
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n!项
考虑Laplace定理的展开式,选定k行后,子式的选择有 C n k C_n^k Cnk种,每个子式展开有 k ! k! k!项,其相应的代数余子式展开有 ( n − k ) ! (n-k)! (n−k)!项,总共为
C n k ⋅ k ! ⋅ ( n − k ) ! = n ! C_n^k\cdot k!\cdot (n-k)!=n! Cnk⋅k!⋅(n−k)!=n! - 所以证明思路应该是:证明每个k阶子式与其代数余子式之积中的每一项都互异且都属于 ∣ A ∣ |A| ∣A∣的展开式,则证明了Laplace定理
- 证明以上条目2中的“属于”,证明技巧即先特殊后一般
特殊:取 i 1 = 1 , i 2 = 2 , … , i k = k j 1 = 1 , j 2 = 2 , … , j k = k i_1=1,i_2=2,\dots,i_k=k\\ j_1=1,j_2=2,\dots,j_k=k i1=1,i2=2,…,ik=kj1=1,j2=2,…,jk=k则 A ( 1 2 ⋯ k 1 2 ⋯ k ) A ^ ( 1 2 ⋯ k 1 2 ⋯ k ) A\begin{pmatrix} 1&2&\cdots &k\\ 1&2&\cdots &k\\ \end{pmatrix} \hat{A}\begin{pmatrix} 1&2&\cdots &k\\ 1&2&\cdots &k\\ \end{pmatrix} A(1122⋯⋯kk)A^(1122⋯⋯kk)
中的任一项具有以下形式
( − 1 ) σ a j 1 1 a j 2 2 ⋯ a j k k a j k + 1 , k + 1 ⋯ a j n n (-1)^{\sigma}a_{j_11}a_{j_22}\cdots a_{j_kk}a_{j_{k+1},k+1}\cdots a_{j_nn} (−1)σaj11aj22⋯ajkkajk+1,k+1⋯ajnn
其中
σ = N ( j 1 , j 2 , … , j k ) + N ( j k + 1 , j k + 2 , … , j n ) \sigma = N( j_1,j_2,\dots,j_k)+N(j_{k+1},j_{k+2},\dots,j_n) σ=N(j1,j2,…,jk)+N(jk+1,jk+2,…,jn)
由逆序数的定义易知
N ( j 1 , j 2 , … , j n ) = N ( j 1 , j 2 , … , j k ) + N ( j k + 1 , j k + 2 , … , j n ) \begin{split} &N(j_1,j_2,\dots,j_n)\\ =&N( j_1,j_2,\dots,j_k)+N(j_{k+1},j_{k+2},\dots,j_n) \end{split} =N(j1,j2,…,jn)N(j1,j2,…,jk)+N(jk+1,jk+2,…,jn)
即得结论
一般情形即把相应行(列)依次换到前k行(列)
3.2.3 行列式的降阶公式:
由Laplace定理可得到如下的重要推论:
将一个矩阵分块,左上角和右下角均划分为方阵,记为m阶方阵A,n阶方阵D
- ∣ A O C D ∣ = ∣ A ∣ ⋅ ∣ D ∣ \begin{vmatrix} A& O\\ C& D\\ \end{vmatrix} =|A|\cdot |D| ACOD =∣A∣⋅∣D∣
- 若A为可逆阵,则
∣ A B C D ∣ = ∣ A ∣ ∣ D − C A − 1 B ∣ \begin{vmatrix} A & B\\ C & D\\ \end{vmatrix}=|A||D-CA^{-1}B| ACBD =∣A∣∣D−CA−1B∣ - 若D为可逆阵,则
∣ A B C D ∣ = ∣ D ∣ ∣ A − B D − 1 C ∣ \begin{vmatrix} A & B\\ C & D\\ \end{vmatrix}=|D||A-BD^{-1}C| ACBD =∣D∣∣A−BD−1C∣
证明过程:将分块阵化为对角阵的形式即可
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\begin{vmatrix} A & B\\ C & D\\ \end{vmatrix}= \begin{vmatrix} A & B\\ O & D-CA^{-1}B\\ \end{vmatrix}=|A||D-CA^{-1}B|
ACBD
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=∣A∣∣D−CA−1B∣推论1:设
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ABBA
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AB−BA
=∣A+iB∣∣A−iB∣推论3:设
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4. Cauchy-Binet公式
4.1 Cauchy-Binet公式
设 m × n m\times n m×n阶矩阵A, n × m n\times m n×m阶矩阵B
若 m > n m>n m>n,则有 ∣ A B ∣ = 0 |AB|=0 ∣AB∣=0
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|AB|=\sum\limits_{1\leq j_1<\cdots j_m\leq n} A\begin{pmatrix} 1&2&\cdots&m\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots&m\\ \end{pmatrix} B\begin{pmatrix} j_1&j_2&\cdots&m\\ 1&2&\cdots&m\\ \end{pmatrix}
∣AB∣=1≤j1<⋯jm≤n∑A(1j12j2⋯⋯mm)B(j11j22⋯⋯mm)
证明思路:令 C = ( A O − I n B ) , M = ( O A B − I n B ) C=\begin{pmatrix} A& O\\ -I_n& B\\ \end{pmatrix}, M=\begin{pmatrix} O& AB\\ -I_n & B\\ \end{pmatrix} C=(A−InOB),M=(O−InABB)
(1) ∣ M ∣ = ∣ C ∣ |M|=|C| ∣M∣=∣C∣
(2)由Laplace定理,以前m行展开,得 ∣ M ∣ = ( − 1 ) n ( m + 1 ) ∣ A B ∣ |M|=(-1)^{n(m+1)}|AB| ∣M∣=(−1)n(m+1)∣AB∣
(3)由Laplace定理,以前m行展开,
若m>n,则 ∣ C ∣ = 0 |C|=0 ∣C∣=0
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|C|=\sum\limits_{1\leq j_1<\cdots<j_m\leq n} A\begin{pmatrix} 1&2&\cdots &m\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots&j_m\\ \end{pmatrix} \hat{C}\begin{pmatrix} 1&2&\cdots &m\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots&j_m\\ \end{pmatrix}
∣C∣=1≤j1<⋯<jm≤n∑A(1j12j2⋯⋯mjm)C^(1j12j2⋯⋯mjm)
记
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1,2,…,n去掉
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j1,…,jm后剩余的排列为
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i_1,\dots,i_{n-m}
i1,…,in−m
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\hat{C}\begin{pmatrix} 1&2&\cdots &m\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots&j_m\\ \end{pmatrix}=(-1)^{\frac{m(m+1)}{2}+(j_1+\cdots+j_m)}|-e_{i_1},-e_{i_2},\cdots,-e_{i_{n-m}},B|
C^(1j12j2⋯⋯mjm)=(−1)2m(m+1)+(j1+⋯+jm)∣−ei1,−ei2,⋯,−ein−m,B∣
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|-e_{i_1},\cdots,-e_{i_{n-m}},B|=(-1)^{(n-m)+(i_1+\cdots+i_{n-m})+\frac{(1+n-m)(n-m)}{2}} B\begin{pmatrix} j_1&j_2&\cdots&j_m\\ 1&2&\cdots &m\\ \end{pmatrix}
∣−ei1,⋯,−ein−m,B∣=(−1)(n−m)+(i1+⋯+in−m)+2(1+n−m)(n−m)B(j11j22⋯⋯jmm)
结合
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(j_1+\cdots+j_m)+(i_1+\cdots+i_{n-m})=1+2+\cdots+n
(j1+⋯+jm)+(i1+⋯+in−m)=1+2+⋯+n可以得到
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|C|=(-1)^{n(m+1)}\sum\limits_{1\leq j_1<\cdots<j_m\leq n} A\begin{pmatrix} 1&2&\cdots &m\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots&j_m\\ \end{pmatrix}\cdot B\begin{pmatrix} j_1&j_2&\cdots&j_m\\ 1&2&\cdots &m\\ \end{pmatrix}
∣C∣=(−1)n(m+1)1≤j1<⋯<jm≤n∑A(1j12j2⋯⋯mjm)⋅B(j11j22⋯⋯jmm)
4.2 几个推论
推论1:
设
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m\times n
m×n阶矩阵A,
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n\times m
n×m阶矩阵B,
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r≤m
若
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r>n
r>n,则AB的任意r阶子式必为0
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r≤n,则
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AB\begin{pmatrix} i_1&i_2&\cdots&i_r\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots&j_r\\ \end{pmatrix}= \sum\limits_{1\leq k_1<k_2<\cdots<k_r\leq n} A\begin{pmatrix} i_1&i_2&\cdots&i_r\\ k_1&k_2&\cdots&k_r\\ \end{pmatrix} B\begin{pmatrix} k_1&k_2&\cdots&k_r\\ j_1&j_2&\cdots&j_r\\ \end{pmatrix}
AB(i1j1i2j2⋯⋯irjr)=1≤k1<k2<⋯<kr≤n∑A(i1k1i2k2⋯⋯irkr)B(k1j1k2j2⋯⋯krjr)
推论2:
设A是
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m×n阶的实矩阵,则
A
A
′
AA'
AA′的任意主子式均非负
Cauchy-Binet公式可以用来证明如下的lagrange恒等式,并且十分简洁
推论3:
Lagrange恒等式
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(\sum\limits_{i=1}^na_i^2)\cdot(\sum\limits_{i=1}^nb_i^2)-(\sum\limits_{i=1}^na_ib_i)^2= \sum\limits_{1\leq i<j\leq n}(a_ib_j-a_jb_i)^2
(i=1∑nai2)⋅(i=1∑nbi2)−(i=1∑naibi)2=1≤i<j≤n∑(aibj−ajbi)2
证明:
只需注意到以下事实
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\begin{split} &(\sum\limits_{i=1}^na_i^2)\cdot(\sum\limits_{i=1}^nb_i^2)-(\sum\limits_{i=1}^na_ib_i)^2\\ =&\begin{vmatrix} \sum\limits_{i=1}^na_i^2&\sum\limits_{i=1}^na_ib_i\\ \sum\limits_{i=1}^na_ib_i&\sum\limits_{i=1}^nb_i^2\\ \end{vmatrix}\\ =&\begin{vmatrix} a_1&a_2&\cdots&a_n\\ b_1&b_2&\cdots&b_n\\ \end{vmatrix} \begin{vmatrix} a_1&b_1\\ a_2&b_2\\ \vdots&\vdots\\ a_n&b_n\\ \end{vmatrix}\\ =&\sum\limits_{1\leq i<j\leq n}(a_ib_j-a_jb_i)^2\\ \end{split}
===(i=1∑nai2)⋅(i=1∑nbi2)−(i=1∑naibi)2
i=1∑nai2i=1∑naibii=1∑naibii=1∑nbi2
a1b1a2b2⋯⋯anbn
a1a2⋮anb1b2⋮bn
1≤i<j≤n∑(aibj−ajbi)2
注意到上述等式右端大于等于0,故得Cauchy-schwarz不等式
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(\sum\limits_{i=1}^na_i^2)\cdot(\sum\limits_{i=1}^nb_i^2)\geq (\sum\limits_{i=1}^na_ib_i)^2
(i=1∑nai2)⋅(i=1∑nbi2)≥(i=1∑naibi)2